Une augmentation des dépérissements forestiers a été observée ces dernières décennies et les mécanismes écophysiologiques sous-jacents à un phénomène de mortalité sont aujourd’hui mal connus. La multiplicité des études a permis de dégager plusieurs hypothèses sur les mécanismes fonctionnels mis à l’œuvre lors d’un événement de dépérissement menant à la mortalité dont deux se dégagent : un dysfonctionnement du système hydraulique ou un épuisement des réserves carbonées. Néanmoins, ces hypothèses se sont révélées être non exclusives, ni exhaustives. D’autres hypothèses ont alors été proposées, notamment la contribution d’un dysfonctionnement azoté. De nombreuses observations font état d’un risque potentiel sur l’état écologique du hêtre face à ces changements climatiques globaux par notamment une baisse de la disponibilité en azote du sol et une augmentation des événements de sécheresse. Le travail au sein de cette thèse a donc cherché à évaluer la contribution des métabolismes azoté et carboné aux dysfonctionnements observés lors d’un épisode de dépérissement menant à une mortalité. Durant les 3 ans du projet, nous avons étudié comment le métabolisme azoté et carboné pouvaient être impactés par des défoliations annuelles successives ou une sécheresse longue et intense. Notre étude a permis de montrer que face à une contrainte hydrique sévère ou une défoliation, le cycle azoté interne à l’arbre est conservé avec une forte allocation de l’azote vers le compartiment foliaire au printemps et un recyclage efficace vers les organes pérennes à l’automne. Nous avons pu estimer que cet azote recyclé à l’automne contribue fortement à la mise en place du nouveau compartiment foliaire au printemps suivant et ce, même face à des contraintes importantes. Nous avons pu également mettre en évidence que la quantité de réserves carbonées est maintenue face à une défoliation et, au moins dans un premier temps, face à une sécheresse. Néanmoins, la demande proportionnelle pour des besoins osmotiques a mené à des changements de la composition des sucres de jeunes branches et, face à une sécheresse longue et intense, à une baisse de la quantité de réserves carbonées jusqu’à la mort de l’arbre où les réserves carbonées sont fortement diminuées mais pas totalement épuisées. Finalement, le taux de mortalité dans notre expérimentation fut très faible indiquant la résistance du hêtre lorrain à des contraintes extrêmes. Nos résultats soulignent le caractère de résistance du hêtre face à une contrainte via des ajustements des métabolismes internes mais cette résistance pourrait être perdue si la contrainte est plus longue et plus récurrente. Ces éléments peuvent questionner sur le possible maintien du hêtre face aux changements climatiques / An increase in forest dieback has been observed in recent decades and the question of how trees will react to these brutal changes is raised by the scientific community but not yet resolved. The multiplicity of studies made it possible to draw several hypotheses on the functional mechanisms put into action during a death event leading to mortality, two of which emerge: a dysfunction of the hydraulic system or a depletion of carbon reserves. Nevertheless, these assumptions turned out to be neither exclusive nor exhaustive. Other hypotheses were then proposed in addition to existing ones, in particular the contribution of nitrogen metabolism during a mortality event. Numerous observations point to a potential risk to the ecological status of beech in the face of these global climate changes, in particular a decrease in the availability of soil nitrogen and an increase in drought events. The work in this thesis has therefore sought to evaluate the contribution of nitrogen and carbon metabolisms to dysfunctions observed during an episode of dieback leading to mortality. During the 3 years of the project, we studied how the nitrogen and carbon metabolism could be impacted by successive annual defoliation or a long and intense drought. Our study has shown the internal tree nitrogen cycle is conserved with a strong allocation of nitrogen to the leaf compartment in the spring, its conservation in the foliage during the growing season and an efficient recycling of the leaf nitrogen to the perennial organs during nitrogen winter remobilization. We have been able to estimate that this recycled nitrogen in the fall contributes significantly to the setting up of the new leaf compartment the following spring, even in the face of significant constraints. We have also been able to show that the quantity of carbon reserves is maintained in the face of defoliation and, at least initially, in the face of drought. Nevertheless, the proportional demand for osmotic requirements in the face of a long and intense drought has led to a decrease in the amount of carbon reserves. When the tree dies, the carbon reserves are greatly reduced, but not until exhaustion, contrary to the theory. Finally, the mortality rate in our experiment was quite low indicating the resistance of the Lorraine beech to extreme constraints such as successive defoliation or a long and intense drought. Our results emphasize the resistance character of the beech against a constraint via internal metabolism adjustments but this resistance could be lost if the stress is longer and more recurrent. These elements can question the possible maintenance of beech in the face of climate change

This study sampled salmonid populations in two headwater streams in East Tennessee, Briar Creek and Left Prong Hampton Creek. Length and weight data were used to calculate the growth of these populations to determine if significant variation exists between isolated brook trout populations. Slope comparisons concluded that there was a difference in growth between brook trout populations of these streams (p

Alfalfa, Medicago sativa L., cultivars, breeding lines and germplasm releases (populations) and Rhizobium meliloti L. strains that exhibit nitrogen fixation efficiency and tolerance to salinity and drought stresses should enhance seedling establishment, increase yields, reduce nitrogen dependency on petroleum-based nitrogen fertilizers, and allow wider use of irrigated lands in semiarid and a rid regions. In vitro experiments were conducted to determine relative salt (sodium chloride -- NaCl) tolerance: l) during germination and early seedling growth of 229 alfalfa populations from North Africa, the Middle East and the United States, 2) survival and growth of 92 rhizobial strains obtained from different laboratories in the United States or isolated from host plants growing in saline and arid regions of the Intermountain west, 3) compatibility, nodulation and nitrogen fixation efficiency of the most salt-tolerant alfalfa populations and rhizobial strains, and 4) survival, nodulation and nitrogen fixation efficiency of the most salt-tolerant alfalfa populations and rhizobial strain tested under drought conditions. Results from screening of alfalfa at salinity levels of 0 to 3.2 S m-1 (0.1 S m-1 = 640 mg L-1 = 10 mM NaCl at 25° C) indicated 29 populations exhibited salt tolerance at 2.8 S m-1. At salinity levels of 0 to 7.2 S m-1, 14 rhizobial strains exhibited salt tolerance at 6.4 s m-1. Compatibility, nodulation and nitrogen fixation efficiency in the 29 alfalfa populations and the 14 rhizobial strains under controlled conditions showed that four of the rhizobial strains were highly compatible with all 29 populations. These 29 populations and four strains were then exposed to 0 to 1.6 S m-1 NaCl, with the result that nitrogen was fixed with highly compatible symbionts at 1.6 S m-1 NaCl. From these results, the six most highly compatible alfalfa populations and the best overall rhizobial strain were combined and tested under simulated drought stress. These populations were able to fix more nitrogen under drought stress (-0.76 MPa) (0.088 nmol seedling-1 s-1) than they did under salt stress (1.6 S m-1) (0.066 nmol seedling-1 s-1). The in vitro screening technique for acetylene reduction appears to be a useful tool for detecting physiological changes due to salinity and water stresses and for measuring seedling nitrogen fixation efficiency. Breeding for drought and salinity tolerance in conjunction with high nitrogen fix ing potential may be more realistic than breeding strictly for nitrogen fixation without regard for environmental adaptation.

Abiotic stresses are responsible for limiting crop production worldwide. Among diverse abiotic stresses, drought and salinity are the most challenging. Plants under these conditions have diverse strategies for tolerating stress. Osmotic adjustment and osmoprotection occur in plants during salinity and drought stress through accumulation of compatible solutes to a high level without interfering with cellular metabolism. Polyols (sugar alcohols) including sorbitol and ribitol are one such class of compatible solutes. Using plants of wild-type (WT) and three genetically-modified lines of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cv. ‘Ailsa Craig’), an empty vector line ‘TR22’, and 2 sdh anti-sense lines ‘TR45’, and ‘TR49’ designed to severely limit sorbitol metabolism, the objective of this work was to characterize the sorbitol cycle in tomato in response to abiotic stresses. Sorbitol and ribitol content, as well as the enzymatic activities, protein accumulation, and gene expression patterns of the key sorbitol cycle enzymes ALDOSE-6-PHOSPHATE REDUCTASE (A6PR), ALDOSE REDUCTASE (AR), and SORBITOL DEHYDROGENASE (SDH), were measured in mature leaves in response to drought stress by withholding water and by using polyethylene glycol as a root incubation solution to mimic drought stress, to salt stress by incubating roots in NaCl solution, and to incubation of roots in 100 mM sorbitol and ribitol. A6PR, not previously reported for tomato, and AR both exhibited increased activity correlated to sorbitol accumulation during the drought osmotic, and salt stresses, with SDH also increasing in WT and TR22 to metabolize sorbitol. The level of sorbitol accumulation was considerably lower than that of the common sugars glucose and fructose so was not enough to have a significant impact on tissue osmotic potential but could provide other important osmoprotective effects. Use of the sdh antisense lines indicated that SDH has the key role in sorbitol metabolism in tomato as well as a likely role in ribitol metabolism. Like sorbitol, ribitol also accumulated significantly more in the antisense lines during the stresses. Expression and/or activity of A6PR, AR, and SDH were also induced by the polyols, although it is not clear if the induction was due to a polyol signal, the osmotic effect of the incubation solution, or both. In addition, a unique post-abiotic stress phenotype was observed in the sdh anti-sense lines. After both drought and salt stresses and during a recovery phase after re-watering, the antisense lines failed to recover. This may have been due to their accumulation of ribitol. The sdh anti-sense lines were uniquely sensitive to ribitol but not sorbitol, with an apparent foliar and seed germination toxicity to ribitol. The determination that sorbitol, and perhaps ribitol as well, plays a role in abiotic responses in tomato provides a cornerstone for future studies examining how they impact tomato tolerance to abiotic stresses, and if their alteration could improve stress tolerance.

Drought stress is considered one of the most devastating abiotic stress factors that limit crop productivity for modern agriculture worldwide. There is a large range of physiological and biochemical responses induced by drought stress. The responses range from physiological and biochemical to regulation at transcription and posttranscriptional levels. Post-transcription, the products encoded by eukaryotic genes must undergo a series of modifications to become a mature mRNA. Polyadenylation is an important one in terms of regulation. Polyadenylation impacts gene expression through determining the coding and regulation potential of the mRNA, especially when different mRNAs from the same gene may be polyadenylated at more than one position. This alternative polyadenylation (APA) has numerous potential effects on gene regulation and function. I have studied the impact of drought stress on APA, testing the hypothesis that drought stress may give rise to changes in the usage of poly(A) sites generating different mRNA isoforms. The results showed that usage of poly(A) sites that lie within 5’-UTRs and coding sequence (CDS) changes more than usage of sites in other regions due to drought stress. Alternative polyadenylation is meditated by the polyadenylation complex of proteins that are conserved in eukaryotic cells. The Arabidopsis CPSF30 protein (AtCPSF30), which is an RNA-binding endonuclease subunit of the polyadenylation complex, plays an important role in controlling APA. Previous study showed that poly(A) site choice changes on a large scale in oxidative stress tolerant 6 (oxt6), a mutant lacking AtCPSF30. Within the mutant/WT genotypes, there are three classes of poly(A) site, wild type specific, oxt6 specific, and common (both in wild type and mutant). The wild type specific and oxt6 specific mRNAs make up around 70% of the total of all mRNA species. I hypothesize that the stability of these various mRNA isoforms should be different, and that this is a possible way that AtCPSF30 regulates gene expression. I tested this by assessing the influence poly(A) sites can have on the mRNA isoform’s stability in the wild type and oxt6 mutant. My results show that most mRNA isoforms show similar stability profiles in the wild-type and mutant plants. However, the mRNA isoforms derived from polyadenylation within CDS are much more stable in the mutant than the wild-type. These results implicate AtCPSF30 in the process of non-stop mRNA decay. Messenger RNA polyadenylation occurs in the nucleus, and the subunits of the polyadenylation complex that meditate this process are expected to reside within the nucleus. However, AtCPSF30 by itself localizes not only to the nucleus, but also to the cytoplasm. AtCPSF30 protein contains three predicted CCCH-type zinc finger motifs. The first CCCH motif is the primary motif that is responsible for the bulk of its RNA-binding activity. It can bind with calmodulin, but the RNA-binding activity of AtCPSF30 is inhibited by calmodulin in a calcium-dependent manner. The third CCCH motif is associated with endonuclease activity. Previous studies demonstrated that the endonuclease activity of AtCPSF30 can be inhibited by disulfide reducing agents. These published results suggest that there are proteins that interact with AtCPSF30 and act through calmodulin binding or disulfide remodeling. To test this hypothesis, I screened for proteins that interact with AtCPSF30. For this, different approaches were performed. These screens led me to two proteins-one protein that is tyrosine-phosphorylated and whose phosphorylation state is modulated in response to ABA, which well-known ABA regulates guard cell turgor via a calcium-dependent pathway, and the other is ribosome protein L35(RPL35), which plays an important role in nuclear entry, translation activity, and endoplasmic reticulum(ER) docking. These results suggest that multiple calcium-dependent signaling mechanisms may converge on AtCPSF30, and AtCPSF30 might be directly interact with ribosome protein.

This study examined the effects of drought on the City of San Bernardino Municipal Water Department’s (SBMWD’s) wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) wastewater flow rates and constituent concentrations. The study utilized data obtained from the SBMWD’s monthly discharge monitoring reports (DMRs), dating from 2007 to 2015. For each report the SBMWD Water Reclamation Plant (WRP) and Rapid Infiltration and Extraction (RIX) facility influent and effluent flow rates, along with concentrations of ammonia, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), total inorganic nitrogen (TIN), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were examined. Even though influent and effluent flow rates were examined for both WRP and RIX facilities, a majority of the flow-rate research concentrated on WRP influent flow rates because changes of influent flow rates cascade down the treatment process from WRP influent flow rates to RIX effluent flow rates. Impacts of the drought were analyzed by comparing drought statistics, for the Riverside-San Bernardino area, to influent flow rate trends and relevant constituent concentrations. Relevant constituent data were determined based on if they were discharged near their National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit limits. Pearson Correlation Analyses were used to assess any relationships between influent flow rates and relevant constituents. WRP influent flow rates and TIN concentrations were the only two parameters explored by this project that exhibited measurable changes related to the drought. WRP influent flow rates observed an inverse relationship with drought because persisting drought conditions led to decreased wastewater flow rates. TIN concentrations had a positive relationship with drought conditions based on the inverse correlation between influent flow rates, and the graphical relationship between drought conditions and TIN concentrations. The Pearson correlation coefficient for TIN concentrations and influent flow rates was -0.630 with a p-value less than 0.05, which is a strong negative relationship. Inconsistencies were observed during 2010 and 2011, which were non-drought periods. During non-drought periods it was expected that flow rates would be highest and constituent concentrations would be lowest. This was not the case because during 2010 and 2011 flow rates were lowest and TIN concentrations were highest, contradicting all other data. The drought-related justification for these abnormalities was that the implementation of the 20x2020 Water Conservation Plan, a California water management plan enacted in 2009, increased water conservation and reduced wastewater flow rates. However, there are many other factors that were not explored by this project that could have led to decreased wastewater flow rates, such as housing foreclosure rates peaking during 2010. Further studies are recommended.

Agricultural drought is a creeping disaster that overshadows the vegetative cover in general and cropland specifically in Iraq, a country that was well known for its agricultural production and fertile soil. In the recent years, the arable lands in Iraq experienced increasing land degradation that led to desertification, economic losses, food insecurity, and deteriorating environment. Remote sensing is employed in this study and four different indices are utilized, each of which is derived from MODIS satellite mission products. Agricultural drought maps are produced from 2003 to 2015 after masking the vegetation cover. Year 2008 was found the most severe drought year during the study period, where drought covered 37% of the vegetated land. This part of the study demonstrated the capability of remote sensing in fulfilling the need of an early warning system for agricultural drought over such a data-scarce region. This study also aims to monitor hydrological drought. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite-derived monthly Terrestrial Water Storage (TWS) is the hydrological drought indicator, that is used to calculate the deficit. Severity of drought events are calculated by integrating monthly water deficit over the drought period. In addition, drought recovery time is assessed depending on the estimated deficit. Major drought events are classified into several levels of severity by applying a drought monograph approach. The results demonstrated that GRACE TWS is a reliable indicator for drought assessment over Iraq, and provides useful information for decision makers which can be utilized in developing drought adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Soil Science)) --University of Limpopo, 2013 / Large amount of pre-plant nitrogen (N) fertilizer results in low nutrient-use-efficiency due to poor synchrony between soil N supply and maize demand, especially during N sensitive growth stages. Optimum maize production is dependent on adequate N availability to the crop during the critical vegetative and reproductive growth stages. High N fertilizer prices and maize yield decline are the main challenges faced by the Limpopo Province farmers. The objectives of this study were to compare growth and yield of maize under conventional and site-specific N management in a dryland farming system. The study was conducted in Leeukraal, Towoomba, Ga-Marishane and Radium in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Experimental plots were laid out in a randomized complete block design, with four replications. Phosphorus was applied through band placement using a planter in all plots at a rate of 42 kg P/ha. Hybrid maize SNK 2147 was planted on a 20 by 20 m plot with Inter-row and Intra-row spacing of 0.9 and 0.35 m respectively. Treatments consisted of 3 N management strategies as follows, (i) No N application (N0), (ii) Site-specific N at a rate ranging between 18 and 33 kg N/ha (N1) and (iii) Conventional N application at 58 kg N/ha (N2). Treatment N2 was applied at a uniform rate during maize planting. Sufficiency index as an indication for N deficiency was determined using CCM-200 for treatment N1. The sufficiency index was determined during leaf stage V6, V10 and V14, and thereafter N was applied only when needed. Data were subjected to analysis of variance through Statistical Analysis System package. Mean separation tests were computed using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Maize grain yield at Leeukraal of 5.2 t/ha for N1 was higher than 3.2 and 4.0 t/ha of N0 and N2, respectively. There was no difference amongst the three N management approaches on the grain yield at Towoomba. The grain yield at Ga-Marishane for N1 of 2.2 t/ha was significantly higher than 1.7 t/ha of the N0. Conventional management approach, which is a traditional approach used by farmers in the Limpopo Province, had 2.6 t/ha grain yield that was significantly higher than the N0 and N1. The maize growth and yield under N2 and N1 was compared, N1 required between 43 and 69% lesser N fertilizer as compared to N2. Therefore site-specific nutrient management approach sustains and improves growth and yield of maize using minimal inputs of N compared to conventional approach. This therefore saves input costs and avoids unnecessary environmental consequences. Key words: maize yield, nitrogen management, site-specific approach / Vlaamse Interuniveritatire Raad and Limpopo Department of Agriculture

Root exudates include important chelating compounds and can change the rhizosphere pH by several units. These changes are essential for nutrient uptake and can also alter solubility of soil contaminants and increase plant uptake. Mild root-zone stress may increase exudation and more severe stress can damage membranes and increase root turnover, all of which increase root-zone carbon. Increased carbon from this rhizodeposition can increase microbial activity, which might help degrade contaminants. We studied the effect of three types of stress on root exudation of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum): low K+, drought, and flooding. These stresses were compared to two types of controls: 100% NO3- and high NH4+:NO3- ratio. We developed an improved axenic system to keep plants microbe-free for 70 days while analyzing exudates for total organic carbon (TOC) and organic acids. Axenic conditions were confirmed by plate counts of the leachate and microscopic observations of the leachate and roots. Optimal conditions for plant growth were maintained by monitoring temperature, light, humidity, water, O2, CO2, nutrient availability, and root-zone pH. Plants were grown in Ottawa sand that was layered by size to optimize water availability. Total organic carbon released over the 70-day growth period in mg per gram dry plant was 2.6 in the control, 2.3 in the NH4+ treatment, 3.7 in the flood and K+ stress treatments, and 4.4 in the drought treatment, which was the only treatment significantly higher than controls (p = 0.05). TOC and organic acid levels in the exudates peaked before the end of the study. The peak TOC levels, expressed as mg TOC per gram new dry plant mass, were 1.9 in the control, 3.0 in the NH4+ treatment, 2.9 in the flood, and 5.8 in the drought and K+ stress treatments. Organic acids were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Malic acid was the predominant organic acid, and accounted for the majority of the TOC in the drought treatment. Oxalic, succinic, fumaric, and malonic acids accounted for less than 10% of the TOC. These data indicate that stress may enhance phytoremediation by changing root-zone exudate composition.

This research seeks to understand how wetlands maintain a water supply in the Bear River Basin, where water is generally scarce. Research was conducted through semi-structured interviews with wetland and water experts in the basin and archival research of historical documents and water rights. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service manages three refuges on the Bear River, and has obtained water rights portfolios for each. Holding water rights does not ensure that there will be water available for refuge wetlands. Instead, position in relation to other powerful water users is the most important factor in determining the security of a refuge's water supply and the threats faced from drought. All refuges must manage their water because the human-hydrology of the river is complex and variable; this requires a combination of infrastructure and planning. Maintaining relationships with other water users is another important adaptation to the human-hydrology of the river, because all water users along the river are interconnected. Recognizing that they face the same threats to their water supply allows wetland managers and irrigators to cooperate in order to maintain the water supply for their region of the river and increases adaptability as the region faces climate change. The Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge is the oldest refuge on the river and has the least secure water supply, despite having the largest water rights portfolio. Because it is chronically short of water during the summer, refuge staff have developed an adaptive management strategy to effectively utilize the water they do receive. Management involves predicting water supplies each year, setting water level targets accordingly, actively diverting water to priority wetlands, and allowing non-priority wetland to dry. This is followed by extensive monitoring of habitat conditions and bird use, the results of which are shared in annual management plans. This strategy maintains the most wildlife habitat possible and offers important institutional adaptations. Most importantly, it demonstrates the refuge's water rights are being put to beneficial use. Sharing knowledge gained through management also builds trust and adaptive capacity among water users facing the complex human-hydrology at the end of the Bear River.