Climate change is a major threat to global biodiversity, and will alter species ranges, plant and animal phenology, and species interactions within ecosystems. Climate mediates plant-insect interactions, and consequently has the potential for positive or negative effects on biological control systems. Observational evidence suggests that a recent dramatic reduction in the density of diffuse knapweed, Centaurea diffusa Lamarck, in sites in British Columbia, Canada is attributed to the biological agent Larinus minutus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). This decline took place over several years of late spring and summer drought which suggested an association between dry conditions and successful biological control. To explore this, I conducted field experiments using rain shelters and watering treatments to assess the effectiveness of plant attack by L. minutus under moist and dry conditions. I found that L. minutus reduced seed production regardless of moisture conditions, with a trend towards greater seed reduction under dry conditions. Two or more species of insects in the same genera have been introduced in some weed biocontrol programs. If the species are ecological equivalents and compete the introduction of both species may be detrimental and reduce their impacts. If however the species vary in their distributions, the introduction of congeners may be advantageous. I review the following cases of species pair releases: the beetles Chrysolina quadrigemina (Suffrian) and Chrysolina hyperici (Forster) for St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum L.); the gallflies Urophora affinis Frfld. and Urophora quadrifasciata (Meig.) for Centaurea species; the weevils Neochetina bruchi Hustache and Neochetina eichhorniae Warner for water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms.) and the beetles Galerucella pusilla Duftschmidt and Galerucella calmariensis L. for purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.). I found that congeneric agents can offer complementary control of target weeds in slightly different habitats. Given the increasing focus on possible non-target effects of biological control introductions, I recommend that greater care be taken to avoid mixed species introductions and that judicious use be made of controlled field experimentation to determine species impacts. Molecular studies of species before introduction could help prevent the accidental introduction of multiple species.

Cereals are the basis of global agriculture providing more than half of the human food consumption. In Spain, barley is the main crop in terms of growing area, mostly in the poorest agricultural areas. In semiarid areas crop productivity is not only limited by drought, but also by high temperatures at the end of the growth cycle. An increased use of ‘local’ germplasm could lead to the selection of varieties adapted to specific regional conditions. The use of a barley variety like ‘Albacete’, with its proven adaptation to semiarid conditions, can be an excellent option. It has been hypothesized that the high popularity of ‘Albacete’ with farmers particularly in semi-arid areas where barley is grown under rain fed conditions, may be due to the presence of a special form of chromosomal interchange, a reciprocal translocation. This thesis provides a cytological, genetic and agronomic characterization of this reciprocal translocation.

Recent drought over West Africa (1970s-present) has been a global concern, and the ability to predict the frequency and severity of future droughts is important to mitigate the devastating socio-economic effects of drought. The Sahel region, situated at 10-20°N just south of the arid Sahara Desert and north of the forested Guinea Coast, is particularly vulnerable to drought periodicity because rainfall is already low at 400 mm yr-1. The ability to predict future climate variability depends on adequate knowledge of fluctuations in the past. In West Africa, meteorological records are too sparse and too short in duration to characterize the drought frequency. Consequently, climate reconstructions from lacustrine sediment records are increasingly recognized as an important source of information on past climate variability. Lake Bosomtwe, Ghana (6o30N and 1o25W) was formed over one million years ago by a meteorite impact crater in the Guinea Coast region, just south of the Sahel region. Lake Bosomtwe has a closed-drainage hydrology and lake levels are known to fluctuate with the net flux in rainfall inputs relative to evaporative outputs. In 2004, the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program recovered the complete sediment record for paleoclimatic reconstructions. However, very little has been studied of the limnological conditions that lead to the formation of laminated sediments in Lake Bosomtwe. This thesis has set out to understand the influence climate has on the physical, chemical and biological in-lake processes that generate sedimenting materials, which are preserved as laminated sediment layers. Two years of water column sampling of temperature, oxygen and nutrients at a central deep-water site (78 m water depth maximum) found that this quiescent crater lake is thermally stratified during much of the year, with anoxia persisting below 35 m water depth. During the short dry season of July and August, the monsoon rains that are associated with the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) are displaced northwards over the Sahel region (and away from lake Bosomtwe), and cool air temperatures and clear night skies lead to the disruption of the thermocline and circulation of dissolved nutrients nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in Lake Bosomtwe. Phytoplankton primary productivity, as measured by particulate carbon and chlorophyll a concentrations, was found to increase markedly following the nutrient upwelling event in August. Sediment trap samplers deployed at 20 and 30 m water depth captured the pattern of organic matter deposition and a high flux of organic sediment was deposited shortly after the nutrient upwelling episode in August. The composition of these organic-rich sediments was distinguished by a marked depletion in δ13C and enrichment of δ15N, as compared to sediments deposited before and after this event. Spatial assessment of sediment cores identified that presently, visible laminations were preserved at and below 35 m water depth, but, not at shallower depths. Water depth was also positively correlated with the organic matter content in sediment records and could be used to reconstruct pre-historic lake levels down core. The relationship between lake level and organic content in sediments predicted that water levels were likely 22 m lower than present levels during the period ~1425-1610 CE, which corresponds with a climatic periods known as the Little Ice Age (LIA). The spatial sediment trends also revealed that inorganic sedimentation rates had increased since the onset of recent land clearance and road construction in the catchment, particularly to the north, near the town of Abono. For this reason, two cores from the central deep-water region of Lake Bosomtwe were analysed for organic and carbonate content, δ13C and δ15N, nutrients (C, N, P), magnetic susceptibility, greyscale imagery of the x-radiograph and micro-X-ray analysis of elemental constituents. Paleoenvironmental reconstructions during the past 550 years found that climate-driven lake level change was a prominent factor contributing to the organic content of sediments. High inorganic content, iron concentrations and depleted δ13C distinguished a low stand during the LIA (~1425-1610) when pelagic sediments were likely exposed to periodic oxygenation. High concentrations of organic matter, calcium (Ca) and strontium (Sr), enrichment of δ13C and low C:N ratios were indicative of wet years that likely increased lake levels and the depth of water column mixing. However, sediments with high organic content, depleted δ13C signatures and reduced Ca and Sr concentrations were suggestive of drought years that restricted the depth of seasonal water column mixing and nutrient circulation and did not necessarily result in pronounced lake-level change. During the past century, δ13C of bulk matter was positively correlated with the rainfall anomalies (r2 = 0.45, P < 0.002), indicating that droughts can result in reduced primary productivity, which may ultimately lower fishery yields. The communities living within the crater are dependent on subsistence fishing and farming, and predicting the drought frequency and magnitude in this region is essential to protecting both the ecosystem and the human population. Long-range climate forecasts for West Africa predict greater drought and increasing air temperature. However, with a detailed long-term paleoclimatic reconstruction from Lake Bosomtwe sediment records, potentially the accuracy of these predictions can be improved and better equip policy makers to enact a viable action plan in the best interests of the people.

Hydrological models have been developed to estimate snow accumulation, snowmelt and snowmelt runoff on the Canadian Prairies; however, their proper scale of application is unknown in the Prairie environment. The first objective of this thesis is to examine the proper scale for pre-melt snow accumulation as snow water equivalent (SWE) and snowmelt in a Prairie first order basin. Spatially distributed and spatially aggregated approaches were used to calculate SWE and snowmelt at St. Denis National Wildlife Area (SDNWA). Both approaches used models with similar physics, but differed in the model scale at which calculations were carried out. The simulated pre-melt SWE, cumulative seasonal SWE, and daily snowmelt from the two modelling approaches were compared to field observations of pre-melt SWE, cumulative seasonal SWE, and daily snowmelt; comparisons of areal cumulative seasonal SWE, areal snowmelt, snowmelt duration, and snow-covered area were also conducted between two modelling approaches. Results from these comparisons showed that both approaches had reasonable and similar accuracy in estimation of SWE and snowmelt. The spatially aggregated approach was more computationally efficient and was selected as a modelling scale for small-sized prairie basins. <p>Another objective of this thesis is to derive a snow hydrology model for the Canadian Prairies. Physically-based hydrological models were assembled in the Cold Regions Hydrological Model Platform (CRHM) using the aggregated approach. Tests of pre-melt SWE and surface snowmelt runoff were conducted at two basins in Saskatchewan Creighton Tributary of Bad Lake and Wetland 109, St. Denis. Results showed that the snow hydrology model had a reasonable capability to simulate SWE and snowmelt runoff to the stream and wetland. <p>Droughts are natural hazards that develop frequently on the Canadian Prairies. Analyzing the impact of drought on hydrological processes and water supply is another objective of this thesis. Synthetic drought scenarios were proposed for the Creighton Tributary of Bad Lake and the corresponding impacts on the snowmelt runoff-related processes were examined. Results indicated that wind redistribution of snow was very sensitive to drought conditions, sublimation of blowing snow and snow-covered period were sensitive to drought, but winter evaporation and infiltration did not show strong trend. The results also showed that drought conditions had magnified effects on the snowmelt runoff and could cause cessation of streamflow. Also, the impacts of the recent 1999-2005 drought on the snowmelt hydrology were investigated at St. Denis. Results illustrated that three-years (1999-2002) of severe winter drought were followed by a normal year (2002-03) and then a two-year (2003-05) recovery period, and then returning to normal (2005-06). Results showed that both snowfall and rainfall during hydrological winter were consistently low for severe drought and surface snowmelt runoff was very much lower during severe drought, about 45-65 mm less compared to that in the normal periods.

As a result of predicted climate change, environmental conditions may make woody plant species such as poplars (Populus spp.) vulnerable unless they are sufficiently adaptable to the new environment. This greenhouse study examined the responses of Hill, Northwest, Okanese and Walker hybrid poplar clones to drought, a potential outcome of a changing climate. Plants were grown from cuttings and subjected to two soil moisture treatments; a well-watered treatment and a drought conditioning treatment in which plants were subjected to cycles of soil moisture deficit. The first study examined growth and gas exchange following treatments, while the second study examined concurrent changes in leaf water potential and gas exchange during a period of increasing soil moisture deficit, following treatments.<p> Hill and Okanese plants had reduced shoot:root ratios, possibly leading to more positive plant moisture balances compared to Northwest and Walker plants. Stomatal characteristics related to steady state gas exchange with Okanese plants having stomata predominantly on lower leaf surfaces, and lower stomatal conductance and Northwest plants having relatively large stomata and increased stomatal conductance. Hill and Okanese plants had the most responsive stomata, which began to close at much higher levels of leaf water potential (-0.45 and -0.54 MPa) than Northwest or Walker plants (-1.03 and -0.88 MPa); however, closure was more gradual in Okanese plants. Drought preconditioning resulted in stomatal closure occurring at higher leaf water potentials in droughted Northwest and Walker plants compared to well-watered plants. Regardless of soil moisture treatment, WUE was highest in Okanese and Walker plants. The drought treatment did however lead to increased WUE in Hill and Northwest plants.<p> Overall, Okanese plants appear to be the best adapted to conditions of reduced soil moisture based on growth and physiological traits, while Northwest and Hill seem better suited to areas where moisture deficits are likely to be less frequent or less severe. Results indicate that variability exists in adaptability of hybrid poplar clones to drought, suggesting that there may also be other hybrid clones that are adaptable to reduced soil moisture conditions, which may merit further investigation.

Der bereits stattfindende Klimawandel mit ansteigenden Temperaturen, einer Zunahme von Trockenperioden und Hitzewellen während der Vegetationsperiode wird das Risiko von Trockenstress für Bäume und Sträucher erheblich erhöhen. Eine der Herausforderungen ist daher die erfolgreiche Etablierung von gesunden, langlebigen und an die spezifischen urbanen Standorte adaptierten Bäume, um die ökologischen und ökonomischen Wohlfahrtswirkungen städtischen Grüns auch in Zukunft zu gewährleisten. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es deshalb, sowohl die Eignung einiger häufig verwendeter Straßenbaumarten für stark versiegelte Straßenbaumstandorte als auch deren Toleranz gegenüber Trockenstress am Beispiel von Dresden zu identifizieren. Die Arbeit verfolgt einen dendrochronologischen und einen physiologischen Ansatz. Im dendrochronologischen Teil der Arbeit wurden die Jahrringzeitreihen von 16 Straßenbaum-Chronologien, 3 Einzelbaum-Chronologien im Stadtgebiet von Dresden und 4 Chronologien eines trockenen Waldstandortes in einem Naturschutzgebiet sowie 2 Chronologien frischer Waldstandorte analysiert. Auf Basis der trendbereinigten Zuwachszeitreihen wurden Klima-Zuwachs-Relationen, moving correlations, Weiserjahranalysen und superposed epoch analyses (SEA) durchgeführt. Im physiologischen Teil der Arbeit wurde in den Sommermonaten der Jahre 2009 und 2010 auf vier urbanen Straßenbaumstandorten der lichtgesättigte Gasaustausch von sechs Baumarten und das Blattwasserpotential von vier Baumarten ermittelt. Für die Messperioden und in ausgewählten Trockenperioden wurde die Wassernutzungseffizienz der Baumarten verglichen. Auf urbanen Straßenbaumstandorten reagieren die Arten Acer platanoides, Acer pseudoplatanus und Fagus sylvatica stark sensitiv auf Trockenheit. Im Gegensatz dazu können die Arten Platanus x hispanica, Quercus robur subsp. sessiliflora und Quercus rubra als weniger trockenheitsempfindlich betrachtet werden. Die dendrochronologischen und physiologischen Ergebnisse erlauben für Tilia cordata Mill., Tilia platyphyllos und Pyrus communis eine Einordnung in eine mittlere Eignung für versiegelte Flächen. Aus den dendrochronologischen und physiologischen Ergebnissen dieser Untersuchung lässt sich schließen, dass sich die höheren Temperaturen und die zunehmenden Trockenperioden für alle untersuchten Arten negativ auswirken können. Dennoch zeigen die Baumarten Platanus x hispanica, Quercus robur subsp. sessiliflora und Quercus rubra, dass sie den sich verändernden Klimabedingungen auf stark versiegelten urbanen Standorten gut widerstehen können und auch in Zukunft eine hohe Vitalität beibehalten werden.

Ethephon treatment caused SPCP3 gene expression (Chen et al., 2006), reduction of chlorophyll content, decrease of Fv/Fm value, increase of H2O2 amount, and more cell death, and accelerated leaf senescence in detached sweet potato leave. Exogenous application of modulators such as reduced glutathione, EGTA or cycloheximide delay leaf senescence and cell death caused by ethephon. These data suggest that oxidative stress, calcium influx and de novo synthesized protein may influence ethephon-mediated leaf senescence and cell death. When ethephon induced leaf senescence and cell death, granulin-containing cysteine protease SPCP3 gene was induced. Transgenic Arabidopsis system was used to explore the possible physiological role and function of SPCP3. The results showed that ectopic expression of SPCP3 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants caused earlier flowering, less rosette leaves when flowering, higher yellowing silique percentage during harvest, and lower germination percentage than that in control. During drought treatment, transgenic plants also exhibited reduction of Fv/Fm value and relative water content, but an increase in H2O2 content and cell death. These data suggest that ecopic expression of SPCP3 caused altered developmental characteristics and drought stress sensitivity. Previous report suggests that granulin-like domain may play a role in regulating enzymatic activity of granulin-containing cysteine protease (Yamada et al., 2001). In this report we demonstrate that pre-removal of granulin-like domain of SPCP3 does not affect significantly drought stress sensitivity compared to full-length SPCP3 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. Based on these data we conclude that oxidative stress, calcium influx, and de novo synthesized proteins may be involved in ethylene signaling leading to leaf senescence and SPCP3 gene expression in detached sweet potato leaves, and ectopic SPCP3 expression in transgenic Arabidopsis plants caused altered developmental characteristics and enhanced drought sensitivity. Granulin-like domain may have no significant influence on SPCP3-mediated effect on drought stress sensitivity.

In this study, I examined the effect of watershed urbanization on the invasion of alien woody species in riparian forests. This study was conducted in three major steps: 1) estimating the degree of watershed urbanization using impervious surface maps extracted from remote sensing images; 2) examining the effect of urbanization on hydrologic regime; and 3) investigating a relationship between watershed urbanization and ecosystem invasibility of a riparian forest. I studied twelve riparian forests along urban-rural gradients in Austin, Texas. Hydrologic regimes were quantified by transfer function (TF) models using four-year daily rainfall-streamflow data in two study periods (10/1988-09/1992 and 10/2004-09/2008) between which Austin had experienced rapid urbanization. For each study period, an impervious surface map was generated from Landsat TM image by a support vector machine (SVM) with pairwise coupling. SVM more accurately estimated impervious surface than other subpixel mapping methods. Ecosystem invasibilities were assessed by relative alien cover (RAC) of riparian woody species communities. The results showed that the effects of urbanization differ by hydrogeologic conditions. Of the study watersheds, seven located in a hillslope region experienced the diminishing peakflows between the two study periods, which are contrary to current urban hydrologic model. I attributed the decreased peakflows to land grading that transformed a hillslope into a stair-stepped landscape. In the rest of the watersheds, peakflow diminished between the two study periods perhaps due to the decrease in stormwater infiltration and groundwater pumpage that lowered groundwater level. In both types of watersheds, streamflow rising during a storm event more quickly receded as watershed became more urbanized. This study found a positive relationship between RAC and watershed impervious surface percentage. RAC was also significantly related to flow recession and canopy gap percentages, both of which are indicators of hydrologic disturbance. These results suggest that urbanization facilitated the invasion of alien species in riparian forests by intensifying hydrologic disturbance. The effects of urbanization on ecosystems are complex and vary by local hydrologeologic conditions. These results imply that protection of urban ecosystems should be based on a comprehensive and large-scale management plan.

The short-term temperature-response of dark respiration may be altered by climate warming through temperature acclimation; however the role of drought in influencing thermal acclimation is not known. We hypothesized that leaf dark respiration in three dominant species of the southern oak savanna in Central Texas, Schizachyrium scoparium, Juniperus virginiana, and Quercus stellata, would respond differently to the effects of warming and intensified summer drought owing to their contrasting photosynthetic pathways, leaf habits, and drought tolerances. Furthermore, changes in respiration were predicted to be linked to alterations in leaf chemistry and structure, including leaf nitrogen and non-structural carbohydrates in response to warming and drought. Monocultures planted in replicated rainfall exclusion shelters were warmed ( 1.5 �C) and rainfall events were manipulated to intensify summer drought and augment cool season rainfall compared to the long-term mean. Both warming and drought affected the short-term temperature-response functions of dark respiration and species differed in their responses. Evidence of temperature acclimation through adjustment in Q10 (temperature sensitivity) and R10 (base rate at 10 �C) was found in S. scoparium and Q. stellata but not J. virginiana. All three species showed evidence of reduced temperature acclimation of respiration with progressive summer drought. Redistributed rainfall in J. virginiana increased respiration in midsummer compared to plants receiving the long-term mean rainfall, but differences disappeared in late summer when drought intensified. In response to rainfall events during summer drought, rates in S. scoparium increased, and the effect was greater in unwarmed compared to warmed plants. In both S. scoparium and Q. stellata, Q10 was reduced post-watering. Regression analyses of respiration against leaf N, soluble carbohydrates, and SLA revealed that relationships differed between species and temperature treatments. Respiration rates were uncoupled from changes in soluble carbohydrates in response to drought and rainfall pulses, suggesting that thermal acclimation is diminished by increasing drought stress in drying soils in contrasting tree and grass species. These findings suggest that models of respiratory carbon flux that incorporate temporal changes in respiratory temperature responses with drought and warming and unique species responses will be critical in predicting species and ecosystem-scale responses to climate change.

The molecular mechanisms underlying disease-resistance and drought-resistance in forest trees are not well understood. Linking variation in gene expression with genetic polymorphisms and with variations in disease- and drought-resistance phenotypes can provide information about these complex traits. We used real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect variations in the expression of 88 disease- and drought-responsive genes within an association population of 354 loblolly pine trees (Pinus taeda L.). Using association genetics approaches, we then linked 3,938 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in candidate genes with gene expression phenotypes to identify novel disease- and drought-responsive genes. To further examine differences in gene expression induced by drought, Fusarium circinatum (responsible for pitch canker disease), and drought F. circinatum, the expression of 114 genes identified through comparative and association genetics approaches was analyzed on a subset of 24 loblolly pine trees possessing a range of pitch canker- and drought-resistance phenotypes. Significant differences in the uninduced expression of all 88 genes measured on the association population were observed among loblolly pine trees. Principal component analysis showed that some variation within the association population could be accounted for by population substructure of geographic origin. Hierarchical clustering of genes based on uninduced expression did not consistently group together functionally similar genes probably because expression was collected on unstressed stem tissue. This was supported in the smaller expression study as correlations between expression values of genes in the same functional networks were usually stronger when induced by a treatment compared with correlations between the uninduced expression of genes in the control group. Gene expression frequently changed by up to 4-fold in response to one or more treatments, but PtMYB12 was the only gene that exhibited a statistically significant change in response to treatments. ANOVA analyses of gene expression controlling for pitch canker resistance and for water use efficiency phenotypes identified differentially expressed genes suggesting that they may be contributing to these phenotypes. Finally, association genetics approaches detected 101 significant associations between SNPs in 94 candidate genes potentially involved in stress responses and 27 gene expression phenotypes.