The present thesis focuses on the fabrication of bio-stimuli responsive micro- and nano-carriers for drug delivery applications. In particular, the objective of this work is to investigate the possibility of using polypeptide drug protamine and glycosaminoglycan drug, chondroitin sulphate as stimuli responsive components in the design of bioresponsive carriers. These biopolymers are biocompatible, biodegradable and clinically used for various applications. Two designs that incorporate these stimuli responsive components have been studied in this thesis. The first design involves hollow micro and nanocapsules that have been fabricated by incorporating the stimuli responsive biopolymers as wall components. Upon exposure to biological triggers, these hollow capsules disintegrate releasing the encapsulated drug. The second design consists of mesoporous silica nanoparticles-biopolymer hybrids. The mesoporous silica nanoparticles act as a gated scaffold that carries the drug molecules. The mesopores of these drug loaded nanoparticles are then blocked with the bioresponsive polymers. Upon exposure to the bio-triggers which consist of enzymes over-expressed in conditions such as cancer and inflammation, these “molecular gates” disintegrate allowing the drug trapped in the mesoporous silica nanoparticles to escape into the surroundings. The thesis has been divided into five chapters: Chapter 1 is an introduction to bio-responsive drug delivery. The broad classification of stimuli used in responsive drug delivery systems are visited. A brief discussion on the various types of bio-stimuli that can be utilized in designing bio-responsive systems is also included in this chapter. Chapter 2 defines the aims and scope of the thesis which is followed by an overview of the various design parameters involved in the fabrication of systems presented in this work. The major stimuli responsive components and the architectures incorporating these elements are discussed in detail here. A literature review of the various carrier designs involved in the study is provided , with special emphasis on stimuli responsive drug delivery. Chapter 3 gives an overview of the various materials and methods involved in this work. A summary of the various characterisation techniques used in the thesis is also included along with the details of the experiments that has been carried out. Chapter 4 provides an overview of the results and discussions of the thesis. The chapter has been divided into six sections: Chapter 4.1 deals with the fabrication of a hollow microcapsule system incorporated with protamine as the stimuli responsive element for bio-responsive drug delivery. The hollow microcapsules that were fabricated by Layer by Layer assembly of protamine and heparin display pH responsive variations in permeability and disintegrate in the presence of the enzyme trypsin that degrades protamine. The biologically triggered enzyme responsive drug release from these microcapsules is also demonstrated using enzymes secreted by colorectal cancer cells. Chapter 4.2 presents nanocapsules fabricated from protamine and heparin. The pH and enzyme responsive drug release of this systems is evaluated in vitro. A wall crosslinking strategy has been tested to control the rate of drug release under physiological pH conditions in the absence of the trigger. The cellular interactions of these nanocapsules loaded with an anticancer drug, doxorubicin was studied using cancer cell lines. Bioavailability studies of doxorubicin encapsulated in these nanocapsules were performed using a BALB/c mice model. Chapter 4.3 discusses the fabrication of a hollow microcapsule system that can disintegrate in response to dual biological stimuli. These carriers have been fabricated by incorporating protamine and chondroitin sulphate as the wall components. Due to the incorporation of two separate stimuli responsive components in the walls, these capsules are expected to be sensitive to the enzymes trypsin or hyaluronidase I. Chapter 4.4 deals with the fabrication of dual enzyme responsive hollow nanocapsule which can be targeted to deliver anticancer agents specifically inside cancer cells. The enzyme responsive elements integrated in the hollow nanocapsule walls can undergo degradation in presence of either of the enzymes trypsin or hyaluronidase I leading to the release of encapsulated drug molecules. The drug release from these nanocapsules which were crosslinked and functionalised with folic acid, is evaluated under varying conditions. The cellular uptake and intracellular drug delivery by these nanocapsules were evaluated in cervical cancer cell lines. Chapter 4.5 introduces a mesoporous silica nanoparticle − protamine hybrid system. The system consists of a mesoporous silica nanoparticle support whose mesopores are capped with protamine which effectively blocks the outward diffusion of the drug molecules from the mesopores of the mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Upon exposure to the enzyme trigger, the protamine cap disintegrates opening up the molecular gates and releasing the entrapped drug molecules. The drug release from this system is evaluated in different release conditions in the presence and absence of the enzyme trigger. The ability of these particles to deliver hydrophobic anticancer drugs and induce cell death in colorectal cancer cells has also been demonstrated. Chapter 4.6 discusses the fabrication of another mesoporous silica nanoparticles based bio-responsive drug delivery system consisting of mesoporous silica and chondroitin sulphate hybrid nanoparticles. The ability of the system to modulate drug release in response to hyaluronidase I is demonstrated. By utilizing a cervical cancer cell line, we have demonstrated the cellular uptake and intracellular delivery of hydrophobic drugs encapsulated in these particles. Interestingly, the system showed ability to enhance the anticancer activity of hydrophobic drug curcumin in these cancer cells. Chapter 5 gives a summary of the general conclusions drawn from the thesis work.

Lipossomos são vesículas microscópicas compostas de uma ou mais membranas lipídicas envolvendo um compartimento aquoso, e podem ser constituídos de moléculas naturais ou sintéticas, como o brometo de dioctadecildimetilamônio (DODAB), um composto de amônia quaternário. Este trabalho mostra: 1) susceptibilidade de quatro espécies bacterianas à ação bactericida de DODAB; 2) verificação da ação antifúngica de DODAB; 3) solubilização de duas drogas antifúngicas (anfotericina B e miconazol) nos lipossomos de DODAB; 4) verificação da eficiência das drogas incorporadas aos lipossomos, como agentes antifúngicos. A susceptibilidade das espécies ao DODAB foi avaliada através de curvas de viabilidade celular para 2,5 x 107 UFC/mL. A bactéria mais resistente foi Escherichia coli, seguida de S. Typhimurium, P. aeruginosa, e S. aureus. Foi demonstrada uma correlação entre a troca de carga de superfície das bactérias e a morte celular. A ação antifúngica do DODAB foi avaliada para Candida albicans através de curvas de viabilidade celular. DODAB é fungistático (1 mM), e bactericida (10-50 µM). Formulações lipossomais de DODAB com anfotericina B ou miconazol mostraram ação fungicida equivalente àquela das drogas sozinhas, em seus melhores solventes. A fase lipossomal de DODAB compete com a membrana da célula fúngica pela anfotericina B, conforme verificado pelo efeito de concentração de DODAB. A 1 mM de DODAB, a fase lipossomal ganha a competição na solubilização da droga para as membranas das células fúngicas e a droga não é entregue para as células. Contudo, a 0,1 mM de DODAB, as membranas ganham a competição e a droga é entregue. / Liposomes are microscopic vesicles composed by one or more lipid membranes surrounding an aqueous compartment. Some synthetic amphiphilic molecules, such as dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB), a quaternary ammonium compound also assemble as vesicles. This work is divided in four parts: 1) susceptibility of four bacterial species to the bactericidal DODAB action; 2) characterization of DODAB\'s antifungal action; 3) solubilization of two hydrophobic antifungal drugs (amphotericin B and miconazole) in DODAB liposomes; 4) determination of efficiency for the liposomal drugs. The susceptibility of four species of bacteria was determined from cell viability in the presence of DODAB at 2.5 x 107 CFU/mL. The less susceptible specie is Escherichia coli, followed by S. Typhimurium, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. There is a relationship between cell surface charge and viability. Negatively charged cells remain alive whereas positively charged cells die. The antifungal action of DODAB towards Candida albicans was evaluated from the determination of cell viability as a function of DODAB concentration. DODAB is fungistatic at 1 mM concentration, and bactericidal at tenths of micromolar (10-50 µM). Liposomal amphotericin B or miconazole present fungicidal action similar to that of the drugs when solubilized in their best solvents. DODAB at 1 mM competes with the fungal cell membrane for amphotericin B solubilization. At 1 mM of DODAB, the liposomal phase wins the competition for drug solubilization and the drug is not delivered to the cell. However, at 0.1 mM of DODAB, the cell membrane wins and the drug is delivered.

INTRODUÇÃO: Sistemas nanométricos carreadores de fármacos, ao alcançarem a circulação sanguínea, se concentram em seus sítios de ação (\"drug-targeting\"), evitando tecidos saudáveis. O diâmetro médio e a polidispersidade de nanopartículas são parâmetros relevantes, pois podem influenciar no percurso pelo fluxo sanguíneo da partícula e na interação celular. A LDE, uma nanopartícula lipídica que mimetiza a lipoproteína de baixa densidade (LDL), é capaz de carrear fármacos como o quimioterápico paclitaxel para tecidos com alta taxa de proliferação celular, como por exemplo, lesões ateroscleróticas e tecidos neoplásicos. Assim, é relevante investigar a influência de diferentes tamanhos da LDE na captação celular e na eficácia terapêutica em aterosclerose experimental. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a influência de duas faixas de tamanhos da nanopartícula lipídica carreadora do quimioterápico paclitaxel (LDE-paclitaxel), na captação celular e na resposta terapêutica do tratamento da aterosclerose em coelhos submetidos à dieta rica em colesterol. MÉTODOS: A associação LDE-paclitaxel foi preparada por emulsificação por alta pressão. A separação da LDE-paclitaxel original em LDE-paclitaxel grande e LDE-paclitaxel pequena foi feita por ultracentrifugação por gradientes de densidade. Nos estudos com células endoteliais HUVEC foram avaliados citotoxicidade, internalização celular e detecção de apoptose/necrose. Para estudo em animal, foram utilizados coelhos New Zealand machos, com aterosclerose induzida por dieta, divididos em dois grupos: LDE-paclitaxel-grande (n=9) e LDE-paclitaxel-pequena (n=10). O tratamento com LDE-paclitaxel foi iniciado após 4 semanas da dieta. Aortas dos coelhos foram coletadas para análise macro e microscópica das lesões ateroscleróticas. RESULTADOS: A LDE-paclitaxel original foi caracterizada com diâmetro médio de 75nm; após a ultracentrifugação, a LDE-paclitaxel grande apresentou diâmetro médio de 83nm e a LDE-paclitaxel pequena de 40nm. Os ensaios de citotoxicidade mostraram que, após incubação por 24 horas, a LDE-paclitaxel pequena alcançou o IC50 com menor concentração que a LDE-paclitaxel grande. No ensaio de internalização, a LDE-paclitaxel pequena foi internalizada em menores concentrações e em menor tempo em comparação com as partículas da LDE-paclitaxel original ou LDE-paclitaxel grande. Nos ensaios para detecção de apoptose/necrose, LDE-paclitaxel, independentemente do tamanho, aumentou a porcentagem de células necróticas. A LDE-paclitaxel pequena também aumentou a percentagem de células apoptóticas, em comparação às outras partículas. No estudo in vivo, não houve diferença entre os tratamentos LDE-paclitaxel grande e LDEpaclitaxel pequena: a razão área de lesão/área total foi igual entre os grupos, assim como a quantificação de macrófagos e de células de músculo liso na íntima das aortas. CONCLUSÃO: O tamanho da LDE, apesar de ser um relevante parâmetro físico-químico, não influenciou no efeito antiaterosclerótico da associação LDE-paclitaxel. Portanto, em relação ao tamanho das partículas, a LDE-paclitaxel original, que possui ambas as populações, é eficienteno tratamento da aterosclerose experimental induzida por dieta rica em colesterol / INTRODUCTION: As nanometric drug carriers enter the blood circulation, they concentrate on their action sites, avoiding healthy tissue. The average diameter and polydispersity of nanoparticles are relevant parameters because they have influence on the particles course through the blood flow and on cell interaction. LDE, a lipid nanoparticle that mimics low-density lipoprotein (LDL), is capable of carrying chemotherapeutic drugs such as paclitaxel, for tissues with a high rate of cell proliferation, such as atherosclerotic lesions. Thus, it is important to investigate the influence of different sizes in the cellular uptake of LDE and therapeutic efficacy in experimental atherosclerosis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of two size ranges of the lipid nanoparticle carrier of the chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (LDE-paclitaxel) in cellular uptake and therapeutic response in experimental atherosclerosis. METHODS: LDEpaclitaxel was prepared by emulsification by high energy. The separation of original-LDE-paclitaxel in large-LDE-paclitaxel particles and small-LDEpaclitaxel particles was performed by ultracentrifugation by density gradients. In studies with HUVEC endothelial cells, cytotoxicity, cell internalization and detection of apoptosis/necrosis were assessed. In in vivo study, New Zealand male rabbits, with atherosclerosis induced by cholesterol-rich diet, were divided into two groups: large-LDE-paclitaxel (n=9) and small-LDE-paclitaxel (n=10). Treatment with LDE-paclitaxel started after 4 weeks of diet. Aortas of the rabbits were collected for macroscopic and microscopic analysis of atherosclerotic lesions. RESULTS: The original-LDE-paclitaxel was characterized with an average diameter of 75nm. After ultracentrifugation, the large-LDE-paclitaxel showed average diameter of 83nm and small-LDE-paclitaxel 40nm. The cytotoxicity assay showed that, after incubation for 24 hours, small-LDE paclitaxel reached the IC50 in lower concentration than large-LDE paclitaxel. In internalization assays, small-LDE-paclitaxel was internalized in lower concentrations and shorter time as compared with the original and large particles. LDE-paclitaxel, independently of particle size, increased the percentage of necrotic cells. Small-LDE-paclitaxel was also able to increase the percentage of apoptotic cellsas compared with the original and large particles. In experimental study, there was no difference between large-LDE-paclitaxel and small-LDE-paclitaxel treatment: lesion area / total area ratio was similar between groups as well as the quantification of macrophages and smooth muscle cells of the intima of aortas.CONCLUSION: The size of the LDE, although an important physicochemical parameter, did not influence the antiatherosclerotic effect of LDE-paclitaxel. Therefore, with respect to particle size, the original-LDE-paclitaxel that has both populations is efficient to treat experimental atherosclerosis induced by a cholesterol-rich diet

INTRODUÇÃO: Sistemas nanométricos carreadores de fármacos, ao alcançarem a circulação sanguínea, se concentram em seus sítios de ação (\"drug-targeting\"), evitando tecidos saudáveis. O diâmetro médio e a polidispersidade de nanopartículas são parâmetros relevantes, pois podem influenciar no percurso pelo fluxo sanguíneo da partícula e na interação celular. A LDE, uma nanopartícula lipídica que mimetiza a lipoproteína de baixa densidade (LDL), é capaz de carrear fármacos como o quimioterápico paclitaxel para tecidos com alta taxa de proliferação celular, como por exemplo, lesões ateroscleróticas e tecidos neoplásicos. Assim, é relevante investigar a influência de diferentes tamanhos da LDE na captação celular e na eficácia terapêutica em aterosclerose experimental. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a influência de duas faixas de tamanhos da nanopartícula lipídica carreadora do quimioterápico paclitaxel (LDE-paclitaxel), na captação celular e na resposta terapêutica do tratamento da aterosclerose em coelhos submetidos à dieta rica em colesterol. MÉTODOS: A associação LDE-paclitaxel foi preparada por emulsificação por alta pressão. A separação da LDE-paclitaxel original em LDE-paclitaxel grande e LDE-paclitaxel pequena foi feita por ultracentrifugação por gradientes de densidade. Nos estudos com células endoteliais HUVEC foram avaliados citotoxicidade, internalização celular e detecção de apoptose/necrose. Para estudo em animal, foram utilizados coelhos New Zealand machos, com aterosclerose induzida por dieta, divididos em dois grupos: LDE-paclitaxel-grande (n=9) e LDE-paclitaxel-pequena (n=10). O tratamento com LDE-paclitaxel foi iniciado após 4 semanas da dieta. Aortas dos coelhos foram coletadas para análise macro e microscópica das lesões ateroscleróticas. RESULTADOS: A LDE-paclitaxel original foi caracterizada com diâmetro médio de 75nm; após a ultracentrifugação, a LDE-paclitaxel grande apresentou diâmetro médio de 83nm e a LDE-paclitaxel pequena de 40nm. Os ensaios de citotoxicidade mostraram que, após incubação por 24 horas, a LDE-paclitaxel pequena alcançou o IC50 com menor concentração que a LDE-paclitaxel grande. No ensaio de internalização, a LDE-paclitaxel pequena foi internalizada em menores concentrações e em menor tempo em comparação com as partículas da LDE-paclitaxel original ou LDE-paclitaxel grande. Nos ensaios para detecção de apoptose/necrose, LDE-paclitaxel, independentemente do tamanho, aumentou a porcentagem de células necróticas. A LDE-paclitaxel pequena também aumentou a percentagem de células apoptóticas, em comparação às outras partículas. No estudo in vivo, não houve diferença entre os tratamentos LDE-paclitaxel grande e LDEpaclitaxel pequena: a razão área de lesão/área total foi igual entre os grupos, assim como a quantificação de macrófagos e de células de músculo liso na íntima das aortas. CONCLUSÃO: O tamanho da LDE, apesar de ser um relevante parâmetro físico-químico, não influenciou no efeito antiaterosclerótico da associação LDE-paclitaxel. Portanto, em relação ao tamanho das partículas, a LDE-paclitaxel original, que possui ambas as populações, é eficienteno tratamento da aterosclerose experimental induzida por dieta rica em colesterol / INTRODUCTION: As nanometric drug carriers enter the blood circulation, they concentrate on their action sites, avoiding healthy tissue. The average diameter and polydispersity of nanoparticles are relevant parameters because they have influence on the particles course through the blood flow and on cell interaction. LDE, a lipid nanoparticle that mimics low-density lipoprotein (LDL), is capable of carrying chemotherapeutic drugs such as paclitaxel, for tissues with a high rate of cell proliferation, such as atherosclerotic lesions. Thus, it is important to investigate the influence of different sizes in the cellular uptake of LDE and therapeutic efficacy in experimental atherosclerosis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of two size ranges of the lipid nanoparticle carrier of the chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (LDE-paclitaxel) in cellular uptake and therapeutic response in experimental atherosclerosis. METHODS: LDEpaclitaxel was prepared by emulsification by high energy. The separation of original-LDE-paclitaxel in large-LDE-paclitaxel particles and small-LDEpaclitaxel particles was performed by ultracentrifugation by density gradients. In studies with HUVEC endothelial cells, cytotoxicity, cell internalization and detection of apoptosis/necrosis were assessed. In in vivo study, New Zealand male rabbits, with atherosclerosis induced by cholesterol-rich diet, were divided into two groups: large-LDE-paclitaxel (n=9) and small-LDE-paclitaxel (n=10). Treatment with LDE-paclitaxel started after 4 weeks of diet. Aortas of the rabbits were collected for macroscopic and microscopic analysis of atherosclerotic lesions. RESULTS: The original-LDE-paclitaxel was characterized with an average diameter of 75nm. After ultracentrifugation, the large-LDE-paclitaxel showed average diameter of 83nm and small-LDE-paclitaxel 40nm. The cytotoxicity assay showed that, after incubation for 24 hours, small-LDE paclitaxel reached the IC50 in lower concentration than large-LDE paclitaxel. In internalization assays, small-LDE-paclitaxel was internalized in lower concentrations and shorter time as compared with the original and large particles. LDE-paclitaxel, independently of particle size, increased the percentage of necrotic cells. Small-LDE-paclitaxel was also able to increase the percentage of apoptotic cellsas compared with the original and large particles. In experimental study, there was no difference between large-LDE-paclitaxel and small-LDE-paclitaxel treatment: lesion area / total area ratio was similar between groups as well as the quantification of macrophages and smooth muscle cells of the intima of aortas.CONCLUSION: The size of the LDE, although an important physicochemical parameter, did not influence the antiatherosclerotic effect of LDE-paclitaxel. Therefore, with respect to particle size, the original-LDE-paclitaxel that has both populations is efficient to treat experimental atherosclerosis induced by a cholesterol-rich diet

O uso da LDE como veículo para quimioterápicos tem mostrado ser uma boa estratégia para aumentar a eficácia terapêutica dos mesmos. Nesse estudo, a LDE foi empregada como veículo para um derivado lipofílico do metotrexato (MTX), o di-dodecil metotrexato, que foi obtido com rendimento elevado através de reação de esterificação do MTX. O aumento na lipofilicidade do derivado possibilitou incorporação na LDE com rendimento e estabilidade elevados. O IC50 de LDE-di-dodecil MTX foi cerca de 100 vezes menor em relação ao MTX comercial, sua captação celular mais elevada nas linhagens leucêmicas estudadas e sua toxicidade animal reduzida, mostrando que a LDE é um veículo promissor para este fármaco. / The use of LDE as vehicle to drugs is a great strategy to improve the therapeutic index and reduce the side effects. In this study LDE was used as vehicle to di-dodecyl methotrexate, a lipophilic derivative of MTX, obtained through an esterification reaction with a high yield. The increased lipophilicity of the derivative allowed a high association to LDE and good stability. The IC50 of LDE-di-dodecyl MTX was lower than that of the MTX and the uptake was higher in leukemic cells. The MTX toxicity in mice was reduced after association to LDE, showing that LDE is a promising vehicle to this drug.

Functional Dendritic Structures from Bile Acids: Supramolelcular Hosts, Light Harvesters and Drug Carriers Chapter 1. An Overview of Functional Dendrimers. Dendrimers are welldefined, hyperbranched macromolecules that are prepared by highly controlled iterative methodologies. The ability to modulate the size, molecular weight, chemical functionalities and the position and number of functional groups in dendrimers make them promising candidates for a wide variety of applications. In this chapter, three areas 1) hostguest chemistry 2) light harvesting and 3) drug delivery, where dendrimers are increasingly finding applications, are discussed with selected examples. Chapter 2. Hydroxyl Terminated Dendritic Oligomers from Bile Acids: Synthesis and Properties. Bile acids are excellent building blocks for dendritic construction because of their many interesting features. They are readily available, chiral, facial amphiphiles with complementary functionalities. Moreover, due to the large size of the bile acid units, a dendritic structure consisting of only a few such repeat units can have an extended structure with multiple functionalizable groups. (figure 1) The high reactivity of the chloroacetyl group has been exploited for the synthesis of bile acid based first and second-generation dendrons with glycolate linkers and multiple hydroxyl groups. The synthesis involves only a few steps and avoids the use of protecting groups for the terminal hydroxyl groups. The synthesis of a bile acid tetramer is shown here as an example (Figure 1). Carboxyl protected cholic acid was reacted with chloroacetylchloride to generate the trischloroacetylated derivative. This compound on reaction with excess of sodium cholate generated the tetramer with nine hydroxyl groups via displacement of the chlorides. In order to synthesize higher generation dendritic structures, perchloroacetylated firstgeneration dendrons were first synthesized. These were subsequently reacted with excess of sodium deoxcholate to generated secondgeneration dendrons with multiple hydroxyl groups (Figure 2). All the compounds were characterized by H NMR, C NMR, IR, ESIMS/MALDI-TOF, HPLC and elemental analysis(wherever possible) Figure 2. Structure of tridecamer. These dendritic structures with facially amphiphilic bile acid backbones on the periphery were able to solubilize cresol red, a hydrophilic dye, in a nonpolar solvent, thus exhibiting reverse micellar characteristics. Chapter 3. Multiple Naproxen Appended Bile Acid Dendrimers as Light Harvesters and Drug Carriers. Part I. Synthesis and Characterization. Using the same synthetic strategy as in Chapter 2, bile acid based dendritic structures appended with multiple bioactive (S)naproxens were generated as potential drug carriers. The construction of these dendrimers was accomplished using per(chloroacetylated) bile acid dendrons and conveniently displacing all the chlorides with naproxen units. Since naproxen is photoactive with a high fluorescence quantum Figure 3. Structures of secondgeneration dendrimers and a monomer with multiple naproxens. yield, the photophysical properties of these multichromophoric dendrimers could be further explored (Figure 3). By functionalizing the carboxyl group on the side chain with an anthracenyl moiety the energy transfer properties of these dendrimers could be studied. In this section the synthesis of first and secondgeneration dendritic structures with multiple naproxen units at the periphery and benzyl/anthracenyl moiety on the side chain are described (Figure 3). Model compounds using monomeric bile acid units were synthesized for comparison with the dendritic structures. All the compounds were characterized by H NMR, C NMR, IR, ESIMS/MALDITOF, HPLC and elemental analysis (wherever possible). Part II: Absorption, Fluorescence and Intramolelcular Energy Tranfer Studies. Absorption studies showed that the molar extinction coefficients increase linearly with increasing number of naproxen units and the absorption spectra of anthracenyl moiety remain unchanged in all the dendritic systems. These indicated the absence of ground state interaction between the chromophores. In the 275-290 nm absorption region, the molar extinction coefficient of naproxen is much greater than that of the 9-anthracenylmethyl chromophore. Hence excitation in this region would mainly excite the naphthalene chromophore. Upon excitation at 275 nm, there was predominant emission from the anthracenyl moiety in the dendritic structures (containing both chromophores) and the fluorescence intensity increased with increasing number of naproxens(Figure4). This indicated that the dendrimers act as efficient light harvesters with energy transfer from naproxen to anthracene (intramolecular nature of the energy transfer was confirmed through control experiments). (Figure 4: Refer PDF File) The fluorescence and energy-transfer properties were further investigated by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. The presence of fast decay component(s) in the naproxen decay in dendritic structures (containing both chromophores) indicates that its fluorescence is quenched in the presence of anthracene due to energy transfer ((λex 275 nm, λem 350 nm (Figure 5). This was further confirmed by monitoring the fluorescence of the sensitized anthracenyl chromophore (λex 275 nm, λem 436 nm) which exhibited a fast rise comparable to he quenched naproxen lifetime(s). The efficiency of energy transfer was estimated by donor quenching by both steadystate and timeresolved techniques. The dendritic structures exhibited high energy transfer efficiencies (~ 70 – 90 %) with the net efficiency decreasing from the first to second-generation. Part III. In vitro Study of Hydrolysis of Naproxen Appended Bile Acid Prodrugs by Chemical and Enzymatic Methods. The naproxen appended bile acid dendrimers consist of hydrolyzable ester and glycolate linkers. Hence the chemical stability and enzymatic degradation with possible release of naproxen was studied. Two compounds, monomer appended with two naproxens and trimer with four naproxens have been used for the initial investigations (Figure 6). The compounds were found to be highly stable towards chemical hydrolysis and did not show any hydrolysis in phosphate buffer, pH = 7.4 even after 7 days. Since the compounds were not soluble in water, Arabic gum and TritonX were used for emulsification. Figure 6. Structures of monomer and trimer. (Refer PDF File) The enzymatic hydrolysis of the compounds was then studied using Candida Rugosa Lipase. In both cases, there was slow hydrolysis of the substrate and intermediates were formed (with release of free naproxen) which were detected by HPLC (reverse phase column with a UV detector). The trimer underwent much slower hydrolysis compared to the monomer. The intermediates were characterized by absorption and mass (ESIMSQTOF) spectrometry.

Targeted delivery aids in minimizing most of the drug-originated systemic toxic effects as well as improving the pharmacokinetic properties of anticancer therapeutics. Tumor targeting using hyaluronic acid (HA) as the targeting ligand has attracted a great deal of interest among a host of strategies developed to target the overexpressed tumor specific receptors. HA is an endogenous molecule that possesses a lot of biological functions in the human body. The role of HA synthases, HA degrading enzymes and the interaction of HA with its primary receptor CD44 in tumor metastasis and angiogenesis is really complex and controversial to date. However, overexpression of CD44receptors on tumor surface has been well studied, which have been utilized to direct tumor targeted drugs. Most of the HA based targeting systems were HA drug conjugates and surface modified colloidal carriers which required covalent modification. The lack of accurate structural characterization of these systems resulted in modification of HA binding sites that could affect the efficient cellular uptake. LbL technique is a simple and facile method to incorporate several materials into polyelectrolyte assemblies for drug delivery applications. HA being a negatively charged polysaccharide can be easily incorporated into such systems without any covalent modification. Although HA based polyelectrolyte multilayer films and microcapsules have been reported in combination with polycations like PAH, PLL and chitosan, their application as targeted drug delivery systems have not yet been explored. Herein, two LbL architectures with HA as the terminal layer have been investigated as targeted drug carriers, which can recognize overexpressed CD44 receptors in metastatic breast cancer cells. In the first part of the thesis, a novel polyelectrolyte nanocapsule system composed of biopolymers HA and protamine sulphate (PR) as the wall components was prepared and characterized. These pH and enzyme responsive nanocapsules were then utilized for efficient loading and release of anticancer drug doxorubicin (dox). Higher drug release was observed in simulated intracellular conditions like acidic pH and presence of hyaluronidase enzyme as compared to physiological pH. In the second part of the thesis, dox incorporated bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles modified with HA-Poly(l-Lysine) multilayers were developed and characterized. The drug release pattern of the dox loaded BSA nanoparticles was found to depend on the presence of a protease enzyme trypsin than pH variations. Both of these drug delivery systems were then evaluated for their cell targeting efficiency and cytotoxicity in CD44+ positive metastatic breast cancer cell line MDA MB 231. The final layer HA facilitated targeted delivery of these drug carriers via CD44 receptor mediated endocytosis. The enhanced cellular uptake followed by sustained delivery of dox by virtue of slow intracellular enzymatic degradation of the drug carriers resulted in their improved cytotoxicity as compared to free dox. Further in vitro biodistribution and tumor suppression efficiency of both the systems were studied in breast cancer xenograft models using BALB/c nude mice. Enhance accumulation of dox in the tumor tissue and significant tumor reduction were observed when treated with encapsulated dox using the HA based nanocarriers as opposed to free dox.

O uso da LDE como veículo para quimioterápicos tem mostrado ser uma boa estratégia para aumentar a eficácia terapêutica dos mesmos. Nesse estudo, a LDE foi empregada como veículo para um derivado lipofílico do metotrexato (MTX), o di-dodecil metotrexato, que foi obtido com rendimento elevado através de reação de esterificação do MTX. O aumento na lipofilicidade do derivado possibilitou incorporação na LDE com rendimento e estabilidade elevados. O IC50 de LDE-di-dodecil MTX foi cerca de 100 vezes menor em relação ao MTX comercial, sua captação celular mais elevada nas linhagens leucêmicas estudadas e sua toxicidade animal reduzida, mostrando que a LDE é um veículo promissor para este fármaco. / The use of LDE as vehicle to drugs is a great strategy to improve the therapeutic index and reduce the side effects. In this study LDE was used as vehicle to di-dodecyl methotrexate, a lipophilic derivative of MTX, obtained through an esterification reaction with a high yield. The increased lipophilicity of the derivative allowed a high association to LDE and good stability. The IC50 of LDE-di-dodecyl MTX was lower than that of the MTX and the uptake was higher in leukemic cells. The MTX toxicity in mice was reduced after association to LDE, showing that LDE is a promising vehicle to this drug.

No / OBJECTIVES: To compare the properties of solid dispersions of felodipine for oral bioavailability enhancement using two different polymers, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), by hot-melt extrusion (HME) and spray drying. METHODS: Felodipine solid dispersions were prepared by HME and spray drying techniques. PVP and HPMCAS were used as polymer matrices at different drug : polymer ratios (1 : 1, 1 : 2 and 1 : 3). Detailed characterization was performed using differential scanning calorimetry, powder X-ray diffractometry, scanning electron microscopy and in-vitro dissolution testing. Dissolution profiles were evaluated in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulphate. Stability of different solid dispersions was studied under accelerated conditions (40 degrees C/75% RH) over 8 weeks. KEY FINDINGS: Spray-dried formulations were found to release felodipine faster than melt extruded formulations for both polymer matrices. Solid dispersions containing HMPCAS exhibited higher drug release rates and better wettability than those produced with a PVP matrix. No significant differences in stability were observed except with HPMCAS at a 1 : 1 ratio, where crystallization was detected in spray-dried formulations. CONCLUSIONS: Solid dispersions of felodipine produced by spray drying exhibited more rapid drug release than corresponding melt extruded formulations, although in some cases improved stability was observed for melt extruded formulations.

No / The current work was undertaken to assess suitability of liquid crystalline phase for engineering of lactose crystals and their utility as a carrier in dry powder inhalation formulations. Saturated lactose solution was poured in molten glyceryl monooleate which subsequently transformed into gel. The gel microstructure was analyzed by PPL microscopy and SAXS. Lactose particles recovered from gels after 48 h were analyzed for polymorphism using techniques such as FTIR, XRD, DSC and TGA. Particle size, morphology and aerosolisation properties of prepared lactose were analyzed using Anderson cascade impactor. In situ seeding followed by growth of lactose crystals took place in gels with cubic microstructure as revealed by PPL microscopy and SAXS. Elongated (size approximately 71 mum) lactose particles with smooth surface containing mixture of alpha and beta-lactose was recovered from gel, however percentage of alpha-lactose was more as compared to beta-lactose. The aerosolisation parameters such as RD, ED, %FPF and % recovery of lactose recovered from gel (LPL) were found to be comparable to Respitose(R) ML001. Thus LC phase (cubic) can be used for engineering of lactose crystals so as to obtain particles with smooth surface, high elongation ratio and further they can be used as carrier in DPI formulations.