The instabilities in the late Qing Dynasty stimulated the reformation movement proposed by the intellectuals and caused a chain reaction in Chinese literature, in which the vision, theme, narrative mode, and aesthetics gradually deviated from the earlier traditions. In general, regardless of complicated contents and diversity of literary genres, the ideas also increased in diversity, and the language of writing moved from Classical Chinese to vernacular Chinese. From the aspect of literary development, this is the evolution from the old to the new. Even though it was only transitional, its function and value as a connection cannot be ignored. This essay compiles the evolutionary pattern of the prose since Gong Zizhen. Chapter One is the Introduction. Chapter Two, covering the social changes and development from the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, discusses the elements of modernization during the late Ming Dynasty, the development and restrictions in the early writings of the Qing Dynasty, to determine the inner clues related to the literary evolution of the late Qing Dynasty. Chapter Three, focusing on the Opium War in 1840 and the writings of Gong Zizhen, Wei Yuan, and the students of Tongcheng Yao School, discusses the tendency behind the evolution of prose in the late Qing Dynasty before and after the Opium Wars (between 1820 and 1850). Chapter Four, covering the period from the Taiping Rebellion to the Sino-Japanese War (1850-1894), discusses how Hong Rengan, Wang Tao, and Zeng Guofan, as the forerunners of the cultural exchange between the East and the West, gradually brought Western knowledge into Chinese prose, thus leading to the development of modern prose. Chapter Five, covering the post Sino-Japanese War period to the end of the Qing Dynasty (1894-1911), with Lin Shu, Yen Fu, and Liang Qichao as examples, discusses the new literary evolution of traditional prose since the early Nineteenth Century, regarding demands for political reformation and social changes. The new course on contents and style had begun, either consciously or unconsciously, thus establishing a new model for literary creation. After the Opium Wars, many literary reformers and other people contributed greatly to the evolution of prose. Yet, this essay can only list a few because of the length, and thus to show the clues to understanding the changes. Generally, the modernization of Chinese prose began the social turbulences and demands for political and cultural reformation. This evolution remained unconscious since Gongwei, up to Lin Shu and Yen Fu. It was not until the Literary Revolution proposed by Liang Qichao, that it became a conscious movement. The new literary style became popular with the press and generated the May 4th Movement.

The Gulf War showed the world how powerful the modern military forces are, and it caused the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) led by U.S. government. Due to the advance of technology, RMA is a chain reaction of changes, on the doctrines, training, organizing and operational methods. Both PLA and its traditional strategic thought of ¡¨People War¡¨ are not able to keep out of impacts brought by RMA, to against High Tech War in the future. Thus, PLA brings this slogan¡¨ RMA with Chinese Characteristics¡¨ in, and devotes itself into military reform, in order to reach the goal of¡¨ Winning High Tech Local War¡¨. PLA hopes to accelerate its step for constructing military information platform, and, at the same time, to reinforce army mechanization. In the end, PLA wants to be as strong as U.S. troops in the year of 2050. In the age of Chinese Reform, Chinese economy is growing incredibly fast, and this economic power turns and pours into its military budget, for constructing modern army forces and transforming military structure. It is obvious to observe, especially taking Chinese Navy¡¦s strategy which changed from¡¨ coastal defense¡¨ to¡¨ offshore defense¡¨ and the pinpoint¡¨ consolidating naval and air supremacy and executing strategic counter attack¡¨ in China¡¦s White Paper on National Defense for two examples, China is seeking to expand its naval capability and to realize its plan for modernization, in order to reach the goal of 2050. PLA Navy (PLAN) understands that there is a huge gap between Chinese Navy and U.S. Navy, however, but they believe that they can make it up through RMA. This essay discusses the influence on modernization for PLAN from 4 aspects, which are: technology and weapon, regime, operational theory, and training, and also analysis relations between PLAN¡¦s modernization and cross-strait security.

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At the turn of the century agrarian parties emerged in large parts of Europe. The parties had one thing in common: they stood up for the social, economic, cultural, and political interests of the agrarian society. The Swedish agrarian parties - 1 Bondeförbundet ' and 'Jordbrukarnas Riksförbund1 - were formed between 1913 and 1915.In this study the agrarian parties are not considered to be class parties. Instead, they are described as traditional parties, defending the old agrarian community against expansive industrialization. Their potential voters belonged to various social strata in the agrarian community, and their political programme, often characterized by a markedly negative view of modern society and by cultural protectionism, is summarized here under the term agrarianism. Agrarianism seen as a political theory and an applicable ideology had features in common with Conservatism as well as with Fascism and Socialism. Liberal values, however, were kept in the background.A modernization perspective is adopted in order to demonstrate that the agrarian parties were in fact traditional parties. It is assumed that regional variation in the electoral support of the agrarian parties reflects the modernization process, and, consequently, that the parties were weaker in industrial areas and stronger in socially and economically backward areas.The empirical studies show that the Agrarian parties stand out as traditional parties rather than class parties. Their voter support was stronger in areas where the historical and economic development was characterized by stagnation and conservatism, as well as in areas where social mobilization advanced slowly. In more industrialized and modernized areas conditions were quite the opposite. A study of Swedish interwar agrarianism with special regard to regional variations in party strength proves the agrarian parties to be the inheritors of a way of life formed by centuries of agrarian traditions. / digitalisering@umu

This study is intended to analyze levels of institutional confidence in China. The purpose is to measure the relationship between changing political and cultural values with modernization and levels of institutional criticism. To analyze institutional criticism modernization and political culture theories are used. Using these theories together offers explanatory power as to what political and cultural values may change and why changes in confidence in governance may occur. These theories include socioeconomic, traditional, and political values to measure institutional confidence in 1990 and 2007. The examination of traditional versus modernization values imply that individuals possessing these opposing values display different confidence in governance levels. The findings suggest that those having higher socioeconomic standing and greater modernization values have a lower level of confidence in governance. Although modernization brought a decrease in confidence in governance, institutional criticism is lower than expected in China. In some cases the status quo is preferred. The findings suggest relatively stable levels of institutional confidence. This implies that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has remained moderate to highly legitimate despite the rigidity of their authoritarian political structure. These findings weaken claims that substantial political reform measures will occur within China in the foreseeable future.

Latin America has been envisioned, time and again, as home to the semi-civilized. Or so (post)colonial imaginaries continue to impress upon us in developmental renderings of a New World that has yet to take off. Neither backward (in the ways of a ‘dark continent’) or advanced (as guaranteed by the status of a ‘first world’), its giants are, at best, chronically emerging. This in-between position is acutely exemplified by the Brazilian dilemma of an interminable modernization, responsibilized for curing all of our ills. The most wide-ranging projects of development are mobilized within this context, but the closer that we get to their distinct materializations, the more that they appear to us as mirages of what ought to be rather than what is, measured against the incorruptible standards of a modernity realized somewhere ‘out there’. In this study, I look to everyday dynamics in Brazil’s aspiring world-city, Rio de Janeiro, that compose the fields and subjects on which development projects operate, in turn revealing and obscuring ‘successes’, ‘failures’, and ultimately, assorted desires and expectations that (mis)lead a politics of transformation in the peripheries of the modern world. In Part III, I elaborate this history of the present as a way to reorient such grand narratives of arrested development, corruption, and other ‘third world’ problems, by drawing on a range of sites of sociability that nurture particular kinds of relations between (dis)obedient subjects and their governing institutions. To this end, I reconceive the terms of debate for thinking about places of an allegedly incomplete or corrupted modernity, in Part II, where I largely reframe the problems that a developmental ethos appropriates for itself, which situates the third world as the constitutive outside of idealized ways of living. By investigating the predominant developmental archetypes of the last century of Brazil’s promised take-offs, in Part I, I set up the pathways to decondition and recondition how we think about the limits and possibilities of a peripheral politics of transformation. In these ways, I conclude that the standards of political judgement that follow from such idealized ways of living neutralize contentions and negotiations over how we want to live, here and now, making way for confused desires, expectations, and responsibilities more in line with (inter)nationalist paradigms and prescriptions than the politics of everyday life in out of the way places. / Graduate / 0615 / 0616 / 0700 / andrea.b.gill@gmail.com

Idag är turismen en av världens största näringar och den förväntas växa ytterligare framöver. Turismen bidrar på många sätt till den ekonomiska utvecklingen världen över men effekterna av tillväxten kan även få förödande konsekvenser för miljön. En ökad miljömedvetenhet inom turismbranschen har på senare tid resulterat i olika miljöledningssystem och miljömärkningar. En miljömärkning är Svanen som bildades som ett svar på den ökade miljömedvetenheten i samhället. År 1988 beslöt sig det Nordiska Ministerrådet att utreda möjligheterna att införa en frivillig nordisk miljömärkning. Svanens kriterier för miljömärkning av hotell blev klara år 1999 och det första Svanenmärkta hotellet öppnades i Sverige. Idag finns det över 250 Svanenmärkta hotell i Sverige. I uppsatsen undersöks huruvida en Svanenmärkning av ett hotell resulterar i positiva miljömässiga och ekonomiska effekter. Uppsatsen undersöker även varför hotellen har valt att miljömärka sig, vad de anser sig fått ut av miljömärkningen och vilka möjligheter och svårigheter miljömärkningen har bidragit med. Studien är avgränsad till Stockholmsområdet och behandlar tio hotell med Svanenmärkningen. Det finns flera anledningar varför ett hotell väljer att miljömärka sig men de flesta grundar sig i den ökande efterfrågan från samhället som avser att företag måste ta mer ansvar för miljön. Miljöarbete på ett hotell handlar ofta om att minska vatten-, energi-, och materialförbrukningen. I studien visar sig dessa vara en stor drivkraft bakom en miljömärkning då minskningen ofta leder till ekonomiska besparingar. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) är ett begrepp som fått genomslag de senaste åren och innebär att företag på en frivillig grund integrerar social och miljömässig hänsyn i sin verksamhet, utöver vad lagen kräver. I studien visar det sig att hotell som aktivt arbetar med CSR-frågor och integrerar dessa i sin verksamhet stärker relationen mellan anställda och ägare, och inte minst kunder, vilket i sin tur kan leda till en ökad lönsamhet och tillväxt.

Uppsatsen handlar om arrangerade äktenskap och kärleksäktenskap i storstadsmiljö i dagens Turkiet. Den belyser främst hur ett äktenskapsarrangemang går till och huruvida inflyttningen från landsbygd till städer har påverkat dem. Jag använder mig av ett inifrånperspektiv genom att intervjua turkiska kvinnor men gör även kopplingar till artiklar som belyser just moderniseringens effekter på äktenskapsformer. / This essay is about marriages in an urban setting in contemporary Turkey. It exemplifies how a marriage arrangement is done and whether the migration into cities from the country has influenced them. I will mainly give an insider perspective by interviewing Turkish women but the essay also relates to articles about modernization’s effects on marriage forms.

I argue that competing visions of development guided the interventions of the United States and France in the West African country of Ivory Coast during the late colonial and early independence periods from 1946 through the 1960s. Indeed, the postwar arrival of American modernity provided an opportunity for nationalist leaders to triangulate the relationship between metropolitan France and colonial Ivory Coast. The ensuing politics of triangulation forced French colonial officials, diplomats, and development experts to “dub” modernization in order to bolster (neo)colonial ties between France and the Ivory Coast. By dubbing I mean the effort to translate and adapt for French purposes development concepts and techniques first elaborated in the United States. I explore these issues in case histories of the port of Abidjan, Kossou dam, and San Pedro development projects. I highlight the discursive as well as institutional frameworks that shaped the development of Ivory Coast. In the early twentieth century, French colonialism’s mission civilisatrice and mise en valeur posited that the colonizers were rational and productive, while the colonized were backward and incompetent to exploit their natural resources. After the Second World War, the ascendant American modernization paradigm added a new level of valuation to colonialism’s moral economy. It proposed a dynamic and progressive teleology in which the colonized could become modernized and actually “work by themselves” to reproduce hegemonic U.S. technological, economic, and political norms. Modernization was a civilizing project as well, but in contrast French (neo)colonialism now appeared static and paternalistic. French attempts to recuperate their position in the Ivory Coast deployed the epistemic memories of decades of work in the colony but ironically involved promoting forms of regional planning pioneered by the Tennessee Valley Authority. To reach these insights, I have used an interdisciplinary historical methodology that is multiarchival and multisited. My dissertation is based on research in numerous French and American archives as well as oral histories with French and American actors who participated in the (post)colonial development drive in the Ivory Coast.

1934 m. antrojoje pusėje įvyko dideli pasikeitimai Lietuvos kariuomenės vadovybėje. Kariuomenės vadu tapęs plk. ltn. Stasys Raštikis ryžtingai ėmėsi reformuoti Lietuvos ginkluotąsias pajėgas, kurios iki to laiko buvo gana apleistos ir prastai paruoštos karui. Pagal parengtą ir 1935 m. pradžioje priimtą kariuomenės modernizacijos planą, visas reorganizacijos procesas turėjo užtrukti septynerius metus, o tam numatyta skirti iš viso 175 mln. Lt. Kariuomenės modernizacijos laikotarpiu (1935 – 1940) gana nuosekliai vyko įvairūs pertvarkymai. Tai nebuvo tik karių apginklavimas moderniais ginklais. Šio proceso metu iš pagrindų sutvarkyta kariuomenės teisinė bazė, išleista daug naujų įstatymų, reformuota kariuomenės organizacinė struktūra. Karių mokymas tapo gerokai intensyvesnis, įdiegtos naujos mokymo priemonės ir programos leidusios tobulinti karių žinias. Visose mokyklose nuo pradinių iki aukštųjų pradėtas dėstyti karinis rengimas ir sustiprintas fizinis lavinimas. Didžioji dalis reformoms skirtų lėšų buvo išleistos apginkluojant kariuomenę, todėl sustiprintos praktiškai visos ginklo rūšys. / Great changes occured in the Lithuanian Army headquarters in the second half of the 1934‘s. Assigned as an army commander, Lieutenant Colonel Stasys Rastikis started to reform the army forces which had been abandoned and poorly prepared for the actions of war. According to the army modernization plan designed in 1935, the reorganization was to last up to seven years and the price for the process called for about 175 millions of litas. During the period of modernization (1935 – 1940) the process itself was going quite consecutively. It hasn‘t been only a renewal of armament, for there has been made some serious changes in the basis of law, many laws has been issued, reorganized the structure of the army. The training courses has intensified, methods of training and new programs were designed which increased the knowledge of soldiers.