With the increased push towards performance-based engineering (PBE) design, there is a need to understand and design more resilient building envelopes when subjected to natural hazards. Since architectural glass curtain walls (CW) have become a popular façade type, it is important to understand how these CW systems behave under extreme loading, including the relationship between damage states and loading conditions. This study subjects 3D computational models of glass CW systems to in- and out-of-plane loading simulations, which can represent the effects of earthquake or hurricane events. The analytical results obtained were used to support fragility curve development which could aid in multi-hazard PBE design of CWs. A 3D finite element (FE) model of a single panel CW unit was generated including explicit modeling of the CW components and component interactions such as aluminum-to-rubber constraints, rubber-to-glass and glass-to-frame contact interactions, and semi-rigid transom-mullion connections. In lieu of modeling the screws, an equivalent clamping load was applied with magnitude based on small-scale experimental test results corresponding to the required screw torque. This FE modeling approach was validated against both an in-plane racking displacement test and out-of-plane wind pressure test from the literature to show the model could capture in-plane and out-of-plane behavior effectively. Different configurations of a one story, multi-panel CW model were generated and subjected to in- and out-of-plane simulations to understand CW behavior at a scale that is hard to test experimentally. The structural damage states the FE model could analyze included: 1) initial glass-to-frame contact; 2) glass/frame breach; 3) initial glass cracking; 4) steel anchor yielding; and 5) aluminum mullion yielding. These were linked to other non-structural damage states related to the CW's moisture, air, and thermal performance. Analytical results were converted into demand parameters corresponding to damage states using an established derivation method within the FEMA P-58 seismic fragility guidelines. Fragility curves were then generated and compared to the single panel fragility curves derived experimentally within the FEMA P-58 study. The fragility curves within the seismic guidelines were determined to be more conservative since they are based on single panel CWs. These fragility curves do not consider: the effects of multiple glass panels with varying aspect ratios; the possible component interactions/responses that may affect the extent of damages; and the continuity of the CW framing members across multiple panels. Finally, a fragility dispersion study was completed to observe the effects of implementing the Derivation method or the Actual Demand Data method prescribed by FEMA P-58, which differ on how they account for different levels of uncertainty and dispersion in the fragility curves based on analytical results. It was concluded that an alternative fragility parameter derivation method should be implemented for fragility curves based on analytical models, since this may affect how conservative the analytically based fragility curves become at a certain probability of failure level. / Master of Science / Performance-based engineering (PBE) can allow engineers and building owners to design a building envelope for specific performance objectives and strength/serviceability levels, in addition to the minimum design loads expected. These envelope systems benefit from PBE as it improves their resiliency and performance during natural multi-hazard events (i.e. earthquakes and hurricanes). A useful PBE tool engineers may utilize to estimate the damages an envelope system may sustain during an event is the fragility curve. Fragility curves allow engineers to estimate the probability of reaching a damage state (i.e. glass cracking, or glass fallout) given a specified magnitude of an engineering demand parameter (i.e. an interstory drift ratio during an earthquake). These fragility curves are typically derived from the results of extensive experimental testing of the envelope system. However, computational simulations can also be utilized as they are a viable option in current fragility curve development frameworks. As it’s popularity amongst owners and architects was evident, the architectural glass curtain wall (CW) was the specific building envelope system studied herein. Glass CWs would benefit from implementing PBE as they are very susceptible to damages during earthquakes and hurricanes. Therefore, the goal of this computational research study was to develop fragility curves based on the analytical results obtained from the computational simulation of glass CW systems, which could aid in multi-hazard PBE design of CWs. As v opposed to utilizing limited, small experimental data sets, these simulations can help to improve the accuracy and decrease the uncertainties in the data required for fragility curve development. To complete the numerical simulations, 3D finite element (FE) models of a glass CW system were generated and validated against experimental tests. 11 multi-panel CW system configurations were then modeled to analyze their effect on the glass CW’s performance during in-plane and out-of-plane loading simulations. These parametric configurations included changes to the: equivalent clamping load, glass thickness, and glass-to-frame clearance. Fragility curves were then generated and compared to the single panel CW fragility curves derived experimentally within the FEMA P-58 Seismic Fragility Curve Development study. The fragility curves within FEMA P-58 were determined to be more conservative since they are based on single panel CWs. These fragility curves do not consider: the effects of multiple glass panels with varying aspect ratios; the possible component interactions/responses that may affect the extent of damages; and the continuity of the CW framing members across multiple panels. Finally, a fragility dispersion study was completed to observe the effects of implementing different levels of uncertainty and dispersion in the fragility curves based on analytical results.

The usefulness of Coulomb (friction) damping in earthquake-resistant design of structures is examined by studying the seismic response characteristics of structures with various arrangements of sliding interfaces. First, three basic arrangements are studied for their effectiveness in reducing lateral displacements of the supporting frame, accelerations of the floor slab and the resulting secondary floor spectra. These are: (1) slab sliding system which has the sliding interface between the floor slab and the supporting frame, (2) double sliding system which consists of sliding interfaces at both top and bottom interfaces (a combination of slab sliding and base sliding), and (3) spring-assisted slab sliding system which is a slab sliding system aided by lateral springs attached to the columns to resist excessive sliding displacement of the slab. The responses are obtained for structures with different frequencies and are presented in response spectrum form. The isolation characteristics of one slab sliding system are compared with those of the base sliding and hysteretic systems. Non-dimensional design parameters defined in terms of the corresponding elastic design spectra are introduced for design purposes and for a consistent presentation of the results. Methods for predicting the important response quantities using the non-dimensional parameters are discussed and their applicability is evaluated. Next, the response of a simple slab sliding arrangement to simultaneous horizontal and vertical ground motion input is studied to see the effects of the vertical excitation on the isolation efficiency of that arrangement. Finally the suitability of adopting such sliding arrangements in multi-story structures is also examined. The seismic responses of multi-story structures with floor slabs sliding at different story levels are obtained and compared with the response of non-sliding structure and base sliding to examine the effectiveness of such sliding arrangement. / Ph. D.

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Thesis (MScEng (Civil Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Reinforced concrete structures, designed according to proper capacity design guidelines, can deform inelastically without loss of strength. Therefore, such structures need not be designed for full elastic seismic demand, but could be designed for a reduced demand. In codified design procedures this reduced demand is obtained by dividing the full elastic seismic demand by a code-defined behaviour factor. There is however not any consensus in the international community regarding the appropriate value to be assigned to the behaviour factor. This is evident in the wide range of behaviour factor values specified by international design codes. The purpose of this study is to assess the seismic drift of reinforced concrete structural walls in order to evaluate the current value of the behaviour factor prescribed by SANS 10160-4 (2009). This is done by comparing displacement demand to displacement capacity for a series of structural walls. Displacement demand is calculated according to equivalency principles (equal displacement principle and equal energy principle) and verified by means of a series of inelastic time history analyses (ITHA). In the application of the equivalency rules the fundamental periods of the structural walls were based on cracked sectional stiffness from moment-curvature analyses. Displacement capacity is defined by seismic design codes in terms of inter storey drift limits, with the purpose of preventing non-structural damage in building structures. In this study both the displacement demand and displacement capacity were converted to ductility to enable comparison. The first step in seismic force-based design is the estimation of the fundamental period of the structure. The influence of this first crucial step is investigated in this study by considering two period estimation methods. Firstly, the fundamental period may be calculated from an equation provided by the design code which depends on the height of the building. This equation is known to overestimate acceleration demand, and underestimate displacement demand. The second period estimation method involves an iterative procedure where the stiffness of the structure is based on the cracked sectional stiffness obtained from moment-curvature analysis. This method provides a more realistic estimate of the fundamental period of structures, but due to its iterative nature it is not often applied in design practice. It was found that, regardless of the design method, the current behaviour factor value prescribed in SANS 10160-4 (2010) is adequate to ensure that inter storey drift of structural walls would not exceed code-defined drift limits. Negligible difference between the equivalency principles and ITHA was observed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gewapende beton strukture wat ontwerp is volgens goeie kapasiteitsontwerp-riglyne kan plasties vervorm sonder verlies aan sterkte. Gevolglik hoef hierdie strukture nie vir die volle elastiese seismiese aanvraag ontwerp te word nie, maar kan vir 'n verminderde aanvraag ontwerp word. In gekodifiseerde ontwerpriglyne word so 'n verminderde aanvraag verkry deur die volle elastiese aanvraag te deel deur 'n kode-gedefinieerde gedragsfaktor. Wat egter duidelik blyk uit die wye reeks van gedragsfaktor waardes in internasionale ontwerp kodes, is dat daar geen konsensus bestaan in die internasionale gemeenskap met betrekking tot die geskikte waarde van die gedragsfaktor nie. Die doel van hierdie studie is om seismiese verplasing van gewapende beton skuifmure te evalueer ten einde die waarde van die gedragsfaktor wat tans deur SANS 10160-4 (2009) voorgeskryf word te assesseer. Dit word gedoen deur verplasingsaanvraag te vergelyk met verplasingskapasiteit. In hierdie studie word verplasingsaanvraag bereken deur middel van gelykheidsbeginsels (gelyke verplasingsbeginsel en gelyke energiebeginsel) en bevestig deur middel van nie-elastiese tydsgeskiedenis analises (NTGA). Die effek van versagting as gevolg van nie-elastiese gedrag word in aanmerking geneem in die toepassing van die gelykheidsbeginsels. Verplasingskapasiteit word deur seismiese ontwerpkodes gedefinieer deur perke te stel op die relatiewe laterale beweging tussen verdiepings, met die doel om nie-strukturele skade te verhoed. Om verplasingsaanvraag en -kapasiteit te vergelyk in hierdie studie, word beide omgeskakel na verplasingsduktiliteit. Die eerste stap in kraggebaseerde seismiese ontwerp is om die fundamentele periode te beraam. Die invloed van hierdie eerste kritiese stap word in hierdie studie aangespreek deur twee periodeberamingsmetodes te ondersoek. Eerstens kan die fundamentele periode bereken word deur 'n vergelyking wat 'n funksie is van die hoogte van die gebou. Dit is egter algemeen bekend dat hierdie vergelyking versnellingsaanvraag oorskat en verplasingsaanvraag onderskat. Die tweede metode behels 'n iteratiewe prosedure waar die styfheid van die struktuur gebaseer word op die gekraakte snit eienskappe, verkry vanaf 'n moment-krommingsanalise. 'n Beter beraming van die fundamentele periode word verkry deur hierdie metode, maar as gevolg van die iteratiewe aard van die metode word dit selde toegepas in ontwerppraktyk. Die resultate van hierdie studie toon dat die huidige waarde van die gedragfaktor soos voorgeskryf in SANS 10160-4 (2010) geskik is om te verseker dat die relatiewe laterale beweging tussen verdiepings binne kode-gedefinieerde perke sal bly. Onbeduidende verskil is waargeneem tussen die resultate van gelykheidsbeginsels en NTGA.

過去台灣的地震保險一直受到忽略，因此缺乏完整的地震損失資料。本研究主要的目的是利用統計方法來模擬地震損失，估計地震損失所造成的直接損失金額，並且進一步討論如何控制地震超額損失保險的預期損失。 本研究推論災害性地震發生頻率是一個負二項分配﹔而損失幅度則利用所求出的房屋倒塌數模型，再假設每一棟倒塌房屋的個設價格作加總而得，因此模擬出地震損失，可以估計出預期地震損失，並且可以進一步建立地震損失機率分布情況。 對於控制地震超額損失保險的預期損失，本研究提出以理賠上限與理賠起始點兩種方式來作損失控制。實證結果發現，利用理賠上限作超額再保險會比較可以控制地震損失。同時也可以利用模擬出的結果來決定應該如何設立理賠上限與理賠起始點。 / The earthquake insurance in Taiwan is ignored for many years, so that the data of earthquake is lacked. This study applied the statistical methods to simulate the earthquake losses in Taiwan, and estimated the loss amount, and discussed how to control the expected loss of excess-of-loss insurance. The frequency of disaster earthquake is a negative binomial distribution. And the severity of each disaster earthquake is to sum up the assumed dollar amount of each damaged houses. Compounding the frequency of earthquake with the severity of earthquake, we can simulate the losses of earthquake. Hence the expected earthquake losses and the probability density function of earthquake losses are built. In order to control the expected loss of excess-of-loss reinsurance, this study compared the results of the trigger level and the capped level of the reinsurance claim, and concluded that the capped level is better than trigger level in controlling the expected loss of excess-of-loss insurance.

This research investigated the behavior of nonseismically detailed reinforced concrete exterior beam-column joints subjected to bidirectional lateral cyclic loading using nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA). Beam-column joints constitute a critical component in the load path of reinforced concrete buildings due to their fundamental role in integrating the overall structural system. Earthquake reconnaissance reports reveal that failure of joints has contributed to partial or complete collapse of reinforced concrete buildings designed without consideration for large lateral loads, resulting in significant economic impact and loss of life. Such infrastructure exists throughout seismically active regions worldwide, and the large-scale risk associated with such deficiencies is not fully known. Computational strategies provide a useful complement to the existing experimental literature on joint behavior and are needed to more fully characterize the failure processes in seismically deficient beam-column joints subjected to realistic failure conditions. Prior to this study, vulnerable reinforced concrete corner beam-column joints including the slab had not been analyzed using nonlinear finite element analysis and compared with experimental results. The first part of this research focused on identification and validation of a constitutive modeling strategy capable of simulating the behaviors known to dominate failure of beam-column joints under cyclic lateral load using NLFEA. This prototype model was formulated by combining a rotating smeared crack concrete constitutive model with a reinforcing bar plasticity model and nonlinear bond-slip formulation. This model was systematically validated against experimental data, and parametric studies were conducted to determine the sensitivity of the response to various material properties. The prototype model was then used to simulate the cyclic response of four seismically deficient beam-column joints which had been previously evaluated experimentally. The simulated joints included: a one-way exterior joint, a two-way beam-column exterior corner joint, and a series of two-way beam-column-slab exterior corner joints with varying degrees of seismic vulnerability. The two-way corner joint specimens were evaluated under simultaneous cyclic bidirectional lateral and cyclic column axial loading. For each specimen, the ability of the prototype model to capture the strength, stiffness degradation, energy dissipation, joint shear strength, and progressive failure mechanisms (e.g. cracking) was demonstrated.

因台灣全島具有許多地震斷層，各處均有可能發生地震，又大型地震易伴隨之地震變動，常有斷層、山崩、地裂、地盤隆起、陷沒、崩崖、噴沙、噴泥、土壤液化、井水變化之情形發生。地震所造成之損失相當嚴重，若僅賴政府之事後救濟，將造成納稅人及國家沉重之財政負荷，相形之下，使人民事前投保地震保險，共同分散損失，乃較佳選擇。有鑑於位於高地震風險地區之國家，例如，位於「環太平洋地震帶」之日本、紐西蘭、美國加州，及位於「歐亞地震帶」之土耳其等，均陸續發展地震保險制度，故本論文欲藉各國地震保險制度，探討我國目前住宅地震保險制度之完善性。 本論文以此為主題，探討之內容包含地震風險是否具可保性、政府是否應介入地震保險市場、綜合天災保險之可行性、地震保險保費釐定之考量因素、是否應強制投保地震保險、強制承保之必要性、目前之投保方式是否構成違法之搭售行為、及理賠標準之爭議等問題，於論文最後並提出相關條文之修正建議。 / Earthquakes occur frequently in Taiwan, and they always lead to catastrophic losses. If the government invests more taxpayer dollars into ex post compensation, it will be unfair to other taxpayers. For insurance plays an important role in the modern societies. It can successfully distribute the risks ex ante and contribute to make societies more stable. So this paper introduces Earthquake Insurance to solve the problem, discusses the topic from different aspects, and does a comparative research on legislation between America, Japan, New Zealand, Turkey and Taiwan. The outline of this paper discusses the insurability, the ways of risk management, the need of government intervention, whether to introduce mandatory insurance, the coverage extent the insurer can provide, and how to determine the premium. At the last of this paper, the author also raises some suggestions of Insurance Law.

本文以2008年汶川地震與2013年雅安地震為例，探究中國大陸國家與社會關係的變遷，一方面，剖析政府如何建立救災體系及管理社會組織，另一方面，剖析社會組織如何以聯合行動投入災難救援。學理層面，以「統合主義」與「資源動員理論」為基礎；實務層面，汶川地震救災時期選取「NGO四川救災聯合辦公室」、「四川512民間救助服務中心」為研究案例，雅安地震救災時期選取「深圳壹基金公益基金會」、「四川尚明公益發展研究中心」與「NGO備災中心」為研究案例，透過比較研究方式，探討國家結構與社會行動間的轉變。本文認為中國大陸社會組織類型除「官辦組織」（Government Organized Non-Governmental Organization，簡稱GONGO）與「非政府組織」（Non-Governmental Organization，簡稱NGO）外，存在另一社會組織類型領導及處理合法性與聯合性問題，即本文自行界定的「社會聚合型組織」（Society Congregated Non-Governmental Organization，簡稱SCNGO），期以提供新的研究角度。 / This article focuses on the transition of relationship between state and society from Wenchuan earthquake to Yaan earthquake in China. On the one hand, it analyses the government how to build disaster rescue system and manage social organization. On the other hand, it analyses social organization s how to rescue by collective action. The basis of theory is Corporatism and Resource Mobilization Theory. The case study of Wenchuan earthquake is NGO Sichuan Relief Joint Office and Sichuan 512 NGO Services Center. The case study of Yaan earthquake is One Foundation, Sichuan Shang Ming Social Development Research Center and NGO Disaster Preparedness Center. Through comparative study, it explores the transformation of state structures and social action. The type of social organization in China is Government Organized Non-Governmental Organization(GONGO) and Non-Governmental Organization (NGO). The author argues that there is another type of NGO that deal with organizational legality and collective action, and it names “Society Congregated Non-Governmental Organization(SCNGO). ” It wants to provide a new perspective.