Nanocellulose is an interesting natural material thatis gaining interest in the field of materials science, particularly nanocomposites. Depending on the disintegration route, nanocellulose can be isolated either in the form of long and flexible fibres (nanofibrillated cellulose, NFC), or stiff, rod-like crystals (cellulose nanocrystals, CNC). Nanocellulose can be utilized in nanocomposites either as a reinforcement element or as a network matrix due to its ability to form a strong network. In this thesis, nanocellulose based materials are prepared by evaporation of a liquid medium. The key step in this processing route is a good dispersion of the nanoparticles in the selected matrix. Therefore the importance of surface modification in order to ensure favourable nanocellulose dispersion is clarified in avariety of materials systems. In Paper I, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) based fibres prepared by electrospinning were reinforced with nanofibrillated cellulose. Native NFC appeared to show a good compatibility with PMMA matrix in the electrospinning solution and resulting fibres. Furthermore, a new method for mechanical testing of mats with random fibre orientation as well as aligned fibres was developed. In Paper II, commingled nanopaper structures with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were prepared. Several surfactants were used to disperse hydrophobic CNTs in water. A nonylphenol phosphate ester (NPPE) was found to work well for both dispersing CNTs in water and providing compatibility with NFC through electrostatic repulsion between the phosphate ester groups of the surfactant and the carboxylate groups of NFC. In Paper III, a new water based route for functionalization of cellulose nanocrystals was developed. In this approach, inspired by organo-modified layered silicates, quaternary ammonium salts were adsorbed. It was demonstrated that different functionalities (alkyl, phenyl, glycidylor diallyl) can be introduced onto the cellulose and the dispersibility in organic solvents was studied. Subsequently, in Paper IV, nanocomposites with poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc)were prepared. The effect of modification on the degree of dispersion of the CNC within the matrix was studied as well as the strong effects on the properties of the resulting nanocomposites. In Paper V, taking advantage of the entangled NFC network and the possibility to tailor the pore size and surface chemistry, lubricant-infused slippery films and coatings based on NFC were prepared for the first time. / <p>QC 20131016</p>

In this work, a new polyurethane (PU) chain extender was developed to incorporate a Glycine-Leucine (Gly-Leu) dipeptide, the cleavage site of several matrix metalloproteinases. PUs were synthesized with either the Gly-Leu-based chain extender (Gly-Leu PU) or a phenylalanine-based chain extender (Phe PU). Both PUs had high molecular weight averages (Mw > 125,000 g/mol) and were phase segregated, semi-crystalline polymers (Tm ~ 42°C) with a low soft segment glass transition temperature (Tg < -50°C). Uniaxial tensile testing of PU films revealed that the polymers could withstand high ultimate tensile strengths (~ 8-13 MPa) and were flexible with breaking strains of ~ 870-910% but the two PUs exhibited a significant difference in mechanical properties. The Phe and Gly-Leu PUs were electrospun into porous scaffolds for degradation and cell-based studies. Fibrous Phe and Gly-Leu PU scaffolds were formed with randomly organized fibers and an average fiber diameter of approximately 3.6 µm. In addition, the Phe PU was electrospun into scaffolds of varying architecture to investigate how fiber alignment affects the orientation response of cardiac cells. To achieve this, the Phe PU was electrospun into aligned and unaligned scaffolds and the physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the scaffolds were investigated. The degradation of the Phe and Gly-Leu PU scaffolds was investigated in the presence of active MMP-1, active MMP-9, and a buffer solution over 28 days to test MMP-mediated and passive hydrolysis of the PUs. Mass loss and structural assessment suggested that neither PU experienced significant hydrolysis to observe degradation over the course of the experiment. In cell-based studies, Phe and Gly-Leu PU scaffolds successfully supported a high density of viable and adherent mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) out to at least 28 days. Culturing murine embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (mESCDCs) alone and with MEFs on aligned and unaligned Phe PU scaffolds revealed both architectures supported adherent and functionally contractile cells. Importantly, fiber alignment and coculture with MEFs improved the organization and differentiation of mESCDCs suggesting these two parameters are important for developing engineered myocardial constructs using mESCDCs and PU scaffolds.

Poröse Materialien sind für eine Vielzahl industrieller, aber auch alltäglicher Prozesse essentiell und daraus nicht mehr wegzudenken. So erstrecken sich die Anwendungen von einfachen, auf Aktivkohle basierenden Wasserfiltern in Heimaquarien, über Zeolithe in selbstkühlenden Bierfässern bis hin zu weltweit genutzten, großtechnischen Verfahren in der Abtrennung von Schadstoffen aus Luft und Wasser. Außerdem werden poröse Materialien als Katalysatoren in Prozessen eingesetzt, die eine Grundlage der Konsumgüterproduktion der heutigen Gesellschaft bilden. In den letzten Jahrzehnten wurde eine Vielzahl neuer hochporöser Verbindungen entwickelt, wobei besonders in den letzten Jahren polymerbasierten Adsorbentien ein gesteigertes Interesse galt. Diese organischen Gerüstverbindungen zeichnen sich durch eine große strukturelle und funktionelle Vielfalt aus, die auf den modularen Aufbau aus multifunktionellen organischen Einheiten (Linker) und verknüpfenden Gruppen (Knoten, Konnektoren) zurückzuführen ist. Neben ihrer homogenen Oberflächenchemie weisen diese Materialien signifikant hydrophobere Oberflächen als herkömmliche Adsorbentien, wie z.B. Aktivkohlen, auf. Dadurch sind die organischen Gerüstverbindungen bestens geeignet, um unpolare organische Komponenten aufgrund attraktiver Wechselwirkung adsorptiv zu binden. Entsprechende Verfahren gewinnen immer stärker an Bedeutung, um z.B. hochtoxische flüchtige organische Verbindungen (VOCs – volatile organic compounds) aus Luft und Wasser durch entsprechende Filter zu entfernen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden verschiedene Ansätze verfolgt, um neuartige organische Gerüstverbindungen herzustellen, die sich durch o.g. unpolare innere Oberflächen auszeichnen (Abbildung 1). Dazu fanden verschiedene synthetische Konzepte Anwendung. Zum einen wurden multifunktionelle organische Linker durch Lithiierung zu starken Nukleophilen umgesetzt, die anschließend über alkylsubstituierte Konnektoren auf Silanbasis vernetzt werden konnten. Durch diese aliphatische Funktionalisierung der Materialien EOF-10 bis -14 (EOF – element organic framework) konnte die Oberflächenpolarität gegenüber vergleichbaren Gerüstverbindungen signifikant gesenkt werden, was wiederum die Wechselwirkungen mit unpolaren Substanzen erhöht. Weiterhin stand die Herstellung und Charakterisierung poröser Polymere über die palladiumkatalysierte Suzuki-Kupplung im Vordergrund, bei der die Linker über die C-C-Verknüpfungsreaktion direkt gebildet und dadurch polare Gruppen an den Konnektoren vermieden werden konnten (EOF-6 bis -9). Diese Verbindungen erreichen spezifische Oberflächen von bis zu 1380 m2g-1 und adsorbieren signifikant größere Mengen des unpolaren Gases n-Butan als weniger polare Aktivkohlen mit vergleichbar großer Oberfläche. Ein dritter Ansatz zur Synthese unpolarer Adsorbentien war die Herstellung von Polyphenylenen über die Cyclotrimerisierung multifunktioneller Acetylverbindungen. Die resultierenden porösen, stark unpolaren Polymere OFC-1 bis -4 (OFC – organic framework by cyclotrimerization), die jeweils über zwei verschiedene Syntheserouten in Lösung bzw. in einer lösungsmittelfreien Schmelze hergestellt werden konnten, wurden durch postsynthetische Funktionalisierung anwendungsspezifisch modifiziert. Außerdem wurden verschiedene Verarbeitungsmöglichkeiten zu monolithischen und textilen Adsorbern über die Syntheseroute aus der Schmelze untersucht. Neben der Herstellung hydrophober Adsorbentien ermöglicht der modulare Aufbau organischer Gerüstverbindungen die Immobilisierung katalytisch aktiver molekularer Spezies. Über die zwei erstgenannten Syntheserouten konnten poröse Netzwerke hergestellt werden, die großes Potential für Anwendungen als heterogene Katalysatoren in bisher überwiegend homogen geführten Prozessen aufweisen (Abbildung 1). So wurde ein hochvernetztes, poröses zinnorganisches Polymer (EOF-3) synthetisiert, dessen katalytische Aktivität in der Cyanosilylierung von Benzaldehyd gezeigt wurde. Dieses Material ist besonders für Ver- und Umesterungsreaktionen in der Oleochemie von Interesse, da derartige Reaktionen überwiegend homogen katalysiert werden. Des Weiteren ermöglichte die Suzuki-Kupplung als Verknüpfungsreaktion den Einbau eines bifunktionellen Imidazoliumlinkers in offenporige, hochvernetzte Polymere (EOF-15/-16). Durch Deprotonierung der Imidazoliumeinheiten wurden N-heterocyclische Carbene (NHC) erzeugt, deren katalytische Aktivität in der Organokatalyse in Kombination mit einer heterogenen Reaktionsführung gezeigt werden konnte. Neben der Entwicklung neuartiger organischer Gerüstverbindungen für Anwendungen als hydrophobe Adsorber und heterogene Katalysatoren behandelte die Dissertation die Verarbeitung poröser Materialien (Abbildung 1). Diese fallen in den meisten Fällen in Form feiner Pulver an, was in Abhängigkeit des Anwendungsgebietes zu Problemen führen kann. Speziell für Filteranwendungen ist eine gute Zugänglichkeit des Porensystems durch eine feine Verteilung der adsorptiven Komponente notwendig. Dafür eignen sich Kompositmaterialien aus porösen Pulvern und Fasern. Eine Alternative stellt die Herstellung von Fasermaterialien mit intrinsischer Porosität dar. Beide Ansätze wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen. Über die Methode des elektrostatischen Spinnens können Vliese extrem feiner Fasern nahezu aller Polymere hergestellt werden. Auch die Produktion von Kompositfasern ist bekannt. Bislang gibt es allerdings sehr wenige Arbeiten zur Herstellung poröser Fasermaterialien über diese Methode. Die Verarbeitung metallorganischer Gerüstverbindungen als Modellsubstanzen über Elektrospinnen zu porösen Kompositfasern wurde untersucht. Es konnten Beladungen von bis zu 80 Gew.-% der porösen Materialien in den Kompositfasern erreicht werden, ohne dass die Porensysteme durch den polymeren Binder blockiert wurden. Weiterhin erfolgte die Verarbeitung von Polycarbosilan, einem polymeren Precursor für keramische Materialien, über Elektrospinnen zu feinen Fasern. Diese wurden durch Pyrolyse zu SiC-Fasern und durch anschließende extraktive Entfernung der Siliziumatome durch Chlorierung zu porösen CDC-Fasern (CDC – carbide-derived carbon) mit außerordentlichen Adsorptionseigenschaften umgesetzt.

Tissue repair is a complex process that is difficult to emulate. The addition of the glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS), a multi-potential regulator of numerous growth factors and cytokines endogenously expressed during the repair process, may represent a valuable tool for tissue engineering. The addition of exogenous HS into wound site has previously been shown to promote tissue repair in a number of models, however, the incorporation of HS into controlled release systems or biomaterials for tissue engineering had not been explored prior to the work presented here. Thus, this thesis explores the incorporation of HS and its analogue heparin into synthetic biodegradable polymer biomaterials with different potential applications, either as a slow releasing drug reservoir, or as a drug releasing cell scaffold. Polycaprolactone was used to make microcapsules and electrospun fibers for HS or heparin entrapment. These materials were characterized for their drug release profiles, biocompatibility and bioactivity. Microcapsules encapsulating heparin or HS were made by the oil - in - water solvent evaporation method which allowed fabrication of slow releasing drug reservoirs. Either pure water or a poly(vinyl alcohol) solution was used in the drug phase which resulted in capsules with similar size and drug loading. However the internal morphology and drug release profiles showed differences depending on the drug phase, in either case release was sustained for over 30 days. These capsules elicited no pro-inflammatory response from macrophages in vitro, and the released HS retained its bioactivity to induce the proliferation of human mesenchymal stem cells, an important cell type for bone tissue engineering. Heparin and HS were incorporated into electrospun fibers as a drug releasing scaffold for two different tissue engineering applications. Heparin fibers were studied as a drug releasing membrane that could be used in vascular repair to prevent the unwanted proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Heparin release was sustained from the fibers for at least 2 weeks. The fibers did not induce a pro-inflammatory response from macrophages in vitro and the released heparin retained the ability to inhibit the proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells. HS fibers were studied as a tissue engineering scaffold for bone repair using human mesenchymal stem cells. HS release was maintained for over 30 days which is thought to be an appropriate time for bone repair applications. The release profiles depended on the HS concentration in the spinning solution which affected the morphology of the fibers. The fibers did not elicit a pro-inflammatory response in cultured macrophages and supported the proliferation and mineralization of human mesechymal stem cells. The HS fibers were then taken through to an in vivo model to study ectopic bone formation of pre-osteoblast cells on HS releasing scaffolds. The fibers produced a chronic inflammatory response in vivo, which lead to the clearance of implanted cells and no mineralization of the scaffold. The HS and heparin materials made in this work showed sustained release over appropriate time frames for different tissue repair applications. The released HS and heparin maintained bioactivity and showed good biocompatibility in vitro, however, further in vivo studies are required to fully test their efficacy for tissue engineering.

Les polyphénols, métabolites essentiels des végétaux, possèdent des propriétés intéressantes pour la santé : antioxydants, antimicrobiens ou anticarcinogéniques mais aussi pour la physico-chimie : amphiphiles, donneurs et accepteurs de liaisons hydrogènes, complexation avec les ions métalliques. Cette thèse a pour but d’utiliser un polyphénol : l’acide tannique (AT) afin de fonctionnaliser des matériaux sous différentes formes. Tout d’abord, l’AT a permis de structurer des fibres électrospinnées d’acide poly-lactique à l’aide de la technique de co-électrospinning-électrospraying pour la régénération de la pulpe dentaire. Ensuite, il a été possible de réaliser pour la première fois des fibres électrospinnées d’AT pur et de les réticuler ouvrant la porte à une synthèse « verte » de fibres pour la catalyse notamment. Enfin, des films multicouches à l’aide d’enzymes ont été construits permettant d’obtenir des films ayant à la fois une activité enzymatique et une électro-activité. / Polyphenols are essential metabolites in vegetal kingdom. They have interesting properties both for healthcare and physical-chemistry : they are antioxidant, antimicrobial or anticarcinogenic and they are amphiphilic, hydrogen-bond acceptors and donors and they can chelate with metallic cations. This thesis aims to use a polyphenol : tannic acid (TA) to design functionnal materials. To begin, for a dental pulp engineerig purpose, TA was used to structure electrospun fibers of poly-lactic acid by using the technics of co-electrospinning-electrospraying. Then, for the first time, it was possible to electrospin fibres from a solution of pure TA. To consider applications, it was possible to cross-link these fibres. This result paves the way for a green synthesis of electrospun membranes. To finish, multilayer enzymatic films were made with TA and alkaline phosphatase or lysozyme. Films have both enzymatic properties and electro-activity due to TA.

Organophosphates and carbamates are potent inhibitors of the neurotransmitter acetylcholinesterase. This inhibition results in the blocking of nerve signal transference into the post synaptic neuron leading to loss of muscle action and death. Because of the universal mechanisms of signal transduction in animals, these inhibitors have been widely used as agricultural pesticides as well as chemical warfare agents (nerve agents). Health issues associated with pesticide usage result from the fact that both the pesticides and their breakdown products often end up in water and food sources as well as in the soil. As a result, there has been an increase in the number of studies aimed at the detection of these pesticides in the environment. One popular research area is enzyme based biosensor construction. Some important criteria for consideration during the construction of biosensors are the importance of a suitable solid support as well as the enzyme immobilisation method. Recently, there has been increased interest in using nano-scale material e.g. using nanoparticles as enzyme support material. This is largely due to their advantages such as large surface area to volume ratio as well as reduced mass transfer resistance. Electrospinning is a straight forward and cost effective method for producing nanofibres from any soluble polymer(s). The applications of electrospun nanofibres have been reported in clinical studies, biofuel production as well as bioremediation. In this study two polymers were selected: nylon for its mechanical stability and chitosan for its biocompatibility and hydrophilicity, for the fabrication of electrospun nanofibres which would function as immobilisation support material for acetylcholinesterase. The first objective of this study was to electrospin nanofibres from a nylon-6 and chitosan blend solution. A binary solvent system consisting of formic acid and acetic acid (50:50) successfully dissolved and blended the polymers which were subsequently electrospun. Scanning electron microscopy characterisation of the nanofibres showed that (i) a nylon-6: chitosan ratio of 16%: 3% resulted in the formation of bead free nanofibres and (ii) the fibres were collected in non-woven mats characterised by different size nanofibres with average diameters of 250 nm for the main fibres and 40 nm for the smaller nanofibres. Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) analysis of the nanofibres indicated that a new product had been formed during the blending of the two polymers. The second aim of the study was to carry out a facile immobilisation of electric eel acetylcholinesterase via glutaraldehyde (GA) cross-linking. Glutaraldehyde solution 5% (v/v) resulted in the immobilisation of 0.334 mg/cm² of acetylcholinesterase onto the nanofibres. The immobilisation procedure was optimised with reference to acetylcholinestease and crosslinker concentrations, incubation time and the cross-linking method. A comparative investigation into the optimum pH and temperature conditions, pH and thermal stabilities, substrate and inhibition kinetics was then carried out on free and immobilised acetylcholinesterase. The final objective of this study was to determine the storage stabilities of the immobilised and free enzymes as well as the reusability characteristics of the immobilised acetylcholinesterase. Several conclusions were drawn from this study. Acetylcholinesterase was successfully immobilised onto the surface of nylon-6:chitosan nanofibres with retention of its activity. There was a shift in the pH optimum of the immobilised acetylcholineseterase by 0.5 units towards a neutral pH. Although both free and immobilised acetylcholinesterase exhibited the same optimum temperature, immobilised acetylcholinesterase showed enhanced thermal stability. In terms of pH stability, immobilised acetylcholinesterase showed greater stability at acidic pH whilst free acetylcholinesterase was more stable under alkaline pH conditions. Relative to free acetylcholinesterase, the immobilised enzyme showed considerable storage stability retaining ~50% of its activity when stored for 49 days at 4°C. Immobilised acetylcholinesterase also retained > 20% of its initial activity after 9 consecutive reuse cycles. When exposed to fixed concentrations of carbofuran or demeton-S-methyl sulfone, immobilised acetylcholinesterase showed similar inhibition characteristics to that of the free enzyme. The decrease in enzyme activity observed after immobilisation to the nanofibres may have been due to several reasons which include some enzyme molecules being immobilised in structural conformations which reduced substrate access to the catalytic site, participation of the catalytic residues in immobilisation and enzyme denaturation due to the reaction conditions used for acetylcholinesterase immobilisation. Similar observations have been widely reported in literature and this is one of the major drawbacks of enzyme immobilisation. In conclusion, nylon-6:chitosan electrospun nanofibres were shown to be suitable supports for facile acetylcholinesterase immobilisation and the immobilised enzyme has potential for use in pesticide detection. Future recommendations for this study include a comparative study of the GA cross-linking method for AChE immobilisation which will lead to more intensely bound enzyme molecules to prevent non-specific binding. An investigation into the effect of inhibitors on stored immobilised AChE, as well as reactivation and reuse studies, may also be useful for determining the cost-effectiveness of reusing immobilised AChE for pesticide detection in environmental water samples. Several models have been designed for the determination of the kinetic parameters for immobilised enzymes. These take into account the mass transfer resistance as well as the overall charge of the immobilisation matrix. The use of these models to analyse experimental data will give a clear understanding of the effects of immobilisation on enzyme activity

A perda ou falha de um órgão ou tecido é um dos problemas mais severos da saúde humana. A engenharia de tecidos, definida como o cultivo e adesão de células humanas in vitro em um scaffold ou arcabouço, surge como uma alternativa viável para reposição de órgãos e tecidos. Estas células proliferam, migram e se diferenciam num tecido específico enquanto produzem os componentes de matriz extracelular (ECM) necessários para criar este tecido. A obtenção de scaffolds fibrosos a partir da blenda polimérica de Poli (Ácido Láctico-co-Glicólico) (PLGA) e Poliisopreno (PI) é proposta como uma alternativa à engenharia de tecidos moles. Este material foi processado como estrutura fibrosa por meio de métodos de gotejamento (FD) e electrospinning (FS). Caracterização físico-química foi aplicada à blenda e às fibras geradas. Também foi averiguada a viabilidade das fibras em culturas de mioblastos murinos, fibroblastos dérmicos humanos, condrócitos bovinos e hepatocarcinomas. Nota-se que o processo de obtenção da blenda não apresentou alterações na estrutura química dos polímeros, sendo apontada também a imiscibilidade entre eles. A ductilidade do material foi apontada como efeito da presença de PI na blenda, embora esta composição apresente similar molhabilidade entre a mistura e os polímeros puros. As fibras geradas por electrospinning geraram um scaffold com menor porosidade do que as fibras obtidas por gotejamento, mesmo apresentando um diâmetro menor e uma orientação paralela entre fibras. As fibras obtidas por gotejamento apresentaram fibras emaranhadas de maior diâmetro, mas maior tammanho de poros, gerando scaffolds de maior porosidade. As propriedades mecânicas de ambos scaffolds indicam sua aplicação enquanto substitutos de tecidos moles. Ensaios de viabilidade celular condenaram o uso das fibras FS, uma vez que estas apresentaram solvente residual no interior da fibra, causando indesejada lise celular. As fibras FD apresentaram resultados de adesão e proliferação adequados para mioblastos, fibroblastos e condrócitos, porém os resultados foram considerados impróprios para hepatócitos. / The lost or failure of an organ or tissue is one of the most severe problems in human health. Tissue engineering, defined as the seeding and adhesion of human cells in vitro over a scaffold, arises as an viable alternative for reproduction of organs and tissues. These cells proliferate, migrate and differentiate into a specific tissue while producing extracellular matrix components. The obtaining of fibrous scaffolds from a polymeric blend of Poly (Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) (PLGA) and Polyisoprene (PI) is proposed as an alternative to soft tissue engineering. This material was processed as a fibrous structure through dripping (FD) and electrospinning (FS) methods. Physical-chemical characterization was applied to the blend and to the generated fibres. Fibres viability was also observed for murine myoblasts, human dermal fibroblasts, bovine chondrocytes and hepatocellular carcinoma cultures. It was noticed that the blending process didn't have any influence over polymer's chemical structure, being observed the immiscibility between the raw materials. Blend's ductile behaviour was pointed out as an effect of PI presence, although this mixture presents similar wettability to the one presented by these raw polymers. Fibres obtained by electrospinnig generated a scaffold with smaller porosity, even presenting fibres with smaller diameter and a parallel organized topography. The fibres obtained by dripping presented a tangled structure of thicker fibres, but assembling a scaffold with higher porosity and inner space. Mechanical properties of both scaffolds indicate their applicability as soft tissue substitutes. Cell viability assays condemn the use of FS fibres, seen that they present residual solvent trapped into the fibre, causing undesirable cell lysis. On the other hand, FD fibres presented positive adhesion and proliferation results for myoblasts, fibroblasts and chondrocytes cell lines, however the results were consider inappropriate for hepatocytes.

Uma potencial alternativa para o transplante de tecidos é a engenharia de tecidos. Células-tronco mesenquimais e scaffolds eletrofiados são comumente utilizados nesta área devido à capacidade multipotente de diferenciação destas células e à rede de poros interconectados destas estruturas fibrosas. Além disso, bioreatores de perfusão podem ser utilizados para melhorar o transporte de nutrientes e reduzir o acúmulo de metabolitos tóxicos. Neste contexto, uma maneira de estudar e otimizar o sistema de cultivo é utilizar técnicas de modelagem para descrever interações ou processos individuais envolvidos no crescimento celular. Deste modo, o objetivo geral deste estudo é realizar o cultivo de células-tronco mesenquimais da polpa de dente decíduo (DPSCs) utilizando scaffolds tridimensionais eletrofiados de policaprolactona (PCL), biorreatores e técnicas de modelagem. Inicialmente foram testadas diferentes misturas de solventes (clorofórmio e metanol), a fim de produzir scaffolds com poros adequados ao cultivo tridimensional. Os diâmetros de fibra e de poro foram determinados por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). O crescimento e o metabolismo das células foram avaliados através da determinação da atividade metabólica e das concentrações de glicose e lactato do meio de cultivo, e a infiltração celular foi observada com a marcação do núcleo celular. Depois de estabelecidos os parâmetros de eletrofiação, o efeito da perfusão direta no desprendimento de DPSCs de scaffolds eletrofiados de PCL foi estudado. A atividade metabólica das células foi determinada para diferentes tempos de adesão, vazões e densidades de semeadura, e a tensão de cisalhamento na parede do poro foi calculada para cada vazão. A morfologia das células foi avaliada através de imagens de microscopia confocal e MEV. Paralelamente, foram realizadas simulações utilizando o software OpenFOAM para estudar como os parâmetros e variáveis de entrada (concentração inicial de glicose, porosidade e espessura do scaffold) afetam as saídas (fração volumétrica de células e concentração de substrato) de um modelo de proliferação celular que considera a difusão e o consumo de glicose. As contribuições do teor de oxigêno na cinética de crescimento de Contois e da variação da porosidade com o tempo devido à degradação do polímero também foram avaliadas. Inicialmente, foi observado que apenas um tamanho de poro maior que o diâmetro da célula permitiu a infiltração das células no scaffold. Então, observou-se que o aumento do tempo de adesão acarretou em maior espalhamento das células e, assim como a diminuição da densidade de semeadura e da tensão de cisalhamento, resultou em uma redução do desprendimento das células sob perfusão. Quanto ao modelo fenomenológico, observou-se maior sensibilidade à concentração inicial de glicose e à porosidade do scaffold, e aos parâmetros adimensionais relacionados à proliferação e morte celular e ao consumo de nutrientes. Além disso, o número inicial de células apresentou maior impacto no transporte de massa do que no crescimento celular. Neste estudo, foi possível obter scaffolds eletrofiados e conduções de cultivo dinâmico adequadas ao cultivo tridimensional de DPSCs, e elucidar os efeitos da limitação do transporte de massa e do oxigênio no crescimento celular, e da degradação do polímero no transporte de massa. / A potential alternative to tissue transplant is tissue engineering. Mesenchymal stem cells and electrospun scaffolds are commonly used in this field due to the multipotent differentiation capacity of these cells and the interconnected pore network of these fibrous structures. In addition, perfusion bioreactors can be used to enhance nutrient transport and reduce the accumulation of toxic metabolites. In this context, one way to study and optimize the culture system is to use modeling techniques to describe interactions or individual processes involved in cell growth. Thus, the objective of this study is to perform the three-dimensional culture of mesenchymal stem cells of dental pulp (DPSCs) using electrospun polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds, bioreactors and modeling techniques. Initially, different solvent mixtures (chloroform and methanol) were tested to produce scaffolds with pores suitable to three-dimensional culture. Fiber and pore diameter was determined using a scanning electron microscope. Cell growth and metabolism were evaluated through the metabolic activity and the culture medium concentration of glucose and lactate, and the cell infiltration was observed with cell nuclei staining. After the establishment of the elesctrospinning parameters, the effect of direct perfusion on DPSCs detachment from PCL electrospun scaffolds was investigated. The metabolic activity of the cells was determined for different adhesion times, flow rates and seeding densities and the pore wall shear stress was calculated for each flow rate. The cell morphology was evaluated through scanning electron and confocal microscopy imaging. In parallel, simulations with the software OpenFOAM were performed to study how parameters and inputs (initial glucose concentration, porosity and thickness of the scaffold) affect the outputs (cell volume fraction and substrate concentration) of a model of cell proliferation and glucose diffusion and consumption. The contribution of the oxygen in the Contois growth kinetics and the porosity variation with time due to polymer degradation was also evaluated. Initially, it was observed that only a pore size higher than the cell diameter allowed the infiltration of the cells through the scaffold. Then, it was observed that a higher adhesion time leaded to higher cell spreading in static conditions and, similar to smaller seeding densities and shear stresses, reduced cell detachment under perfusion. Regarding the phenomenological model, it was observed that the model is more responsive to the initial glucose concentration and scaffold porosity, and to the dimensionless parameters related to cell proliferation, death and nutrient uptake. Furthermore, the initial cell number had a more significant impact on mass transport than on cell growth. In this study, it was possible to obtain an electrospun scaffold and dynamic culture conditions suitable for the three-dimensional culture of DPSCs, and to elucidate the effects of transport limitations and of oxygen on cell growth, and of polymer degradation on mass transport were elucidated.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Wendel Andrade Alves / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia/Química, 2016. / Conjugados de moleculas organicas geralmente se arranjam em sistemas complexos multifasicos que sao muito sensiveis ao processamento e ao ambiente quimico local. E alem disso, as interacoes intermoleculares e presenca de moleculas assimetricas introduzem variacoes estruturais no empacotamento molecular e no ordenamento em maiores escalas, o que diretamente afeta as mais diferentes propriedades fisico-quimicas e processos associados ao material estudado. Nesta tese duas abordagens envolvendo a formacao de materiais hibridos baseados em estruturas supramoleculares de polimeros e peptideos foram estudadas. A primeira trata da obtencao de blendas polimericas baseadas em poli-(¿Ã)-caprolactona (PCL) com polianilina (PANI) dopada pelo aminoacido N-Acetil-L-Cisteina (NAC) pelos metodos de solution casting e eletrofiacao. Os materiais foram caracterizados acerca das suas propriedades morfologicas, estruturais e moleculares em diferentes escalas. A partir dos resultados foi obtida a relacao entre a variacao das propriedades da blenda em relacao a diferentes concentracoes de NAC. Os resultados indicam que a NAC aumenta a organizacao e cristalinidade da blenda, alem de mostrar a relacao entre o processamento e a micro-nanoestrutura interna. E mostrado tambem o processo de dopagem da PANI pela acido conjugado da NAC, o qual favorece a formacao de diferentes formas de PANI. Os resultados indicam a formacao de uma estrutura supramolecular mantida por interacoes intermoleculares do tipo enxofre-¿Î (SH-¿Î) entre a PANI e a NAC. O segundo topico e sobre o estudo da formacao de matrizes conjugadas de estruturas supramoleculares de L,L-difenilalanina (FF-MNSs) em duas diferentes estruturas cristalinas, hexagonal P61 e ortorrombica P22121, com microperoxidase-11 (MP11) e o polieletrolito poli(alilamina hidroclorada) (PAH). Com o uso de tecnicas espectroscopicas discute-se o papel da estrutura cristalina na interacao entre as FF-MNSs e a MP11. E por eletroquimica o papel do PAH no sistema e elucidado. Com auxilio de simulacoes computacionais e observada a dopagem do material com estrutura ortorrombica por moleculas de PAH, diminuindo a energia de band-gap em ~1 eV. A cinetica da reacao de catalise de reducao de H2O2 e estudada, e entao e mostrado o processo de deteccao de glicose pela enzima glicose oxidase suportada na matriz hibrida formada. Os resultados presentes nesse trabalho contribuem com o estudo de novos conjugados supramoleculares de peptideos e polimeros. Assim a interacao entre as diferentes moleculas, e os fatores que levam a essas interacoes sao discutidas, trazendo consigo novas consideracoes sobre a formacao de materiais supramoleculares. / Organic molecules conjugates usually arrange itself in complex multiphasic systems that are very sensitive to processing and the local chemical environment. Beyond that, the intermolecular interactions and the presence of asymmetric molecules introduces structural variations in the molecular packing and larger scales order, which directly affects different physical-chemical properties and processes associated with the studied materials. In this thesis, two approaches involving the formation of hybrid materials based on supramolecular structures of polymers and peptides were studied. The first one deals with the obtaining of polymer blends based on poly-(å)-caprolactone (PCL) with polyaniline (PANI) doped by the amino acid N-Acetyl-L-Cysteine (NAC) by the solution casting and electrospinning methods. The materials were characterized by its morphologic, structural and molecular properties in different size scales. From the obtained results, the relation between the changes on the blends properties and different NAC concentration was achieved. The results indicate that NAC enhances the organization and the crystallinity index of the blends, and shows the relation between the obtaining method and the internal micro-nanostructure. Later it is shown that NAC also modify the molecular properties of PANI. Using spectroscopic techniques, the doping process of PANI by the conjugate acid of NAC was studies, showing that NAC favors the formation of different PANI forms. The results indicate the formation of a supramolecular structure maintained by sulfur-ð (SH-ð) interactions between PANI and NAC. The second topic is about the formation of conjugated matrixes of supramolecular structures of L,L-diphenylalanine (FF-MNSs) in two different crystal structures, the hexagonal P61 and the orthorhombic P22121, with microperoxidase-11 (MP11) and the polyelectrolyte poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH). Using spectroscopic techniques, the role of the crystal structure in the interaction between the FF-MNSs and MP11 is discussed. And with electrochemical experiments the role of PAH is elucidated. And using computational simulations it is observed the doping of the orthorhombic structure by PAH molecules, decreasing the band-gap energy in about 1eV. The kinetics of the catalytic reduction reaction of hydrogen peroxide was studies, and is shown as proof of concept the detection of glucose by the enzyme glucose oxidase supported in the obtained hybrid matrix. The presented results in this work contribute with the study of novel supramolecular conjugates of peptides and polymers, and the factors that lead to those interactions are discussed, bringing with it new considerations about the formation of supramolecular materials.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Chemistry) / Rare earth elements (REEs) have widespread use and importance for industrial applications due to their metallurgical, optical and electronic properties. Several typical hydrometallurgical techniques such as adsorption, chemical precipitation, filtration, ion exchange and solvent extraction techniques have been used for separation and recovery of the rare earth metals from aqueous solutions. Adsorption was recognised as one of the most promising methods due to its simplicity, high efficiency and availability. Many adsorbents are being investigated but there are few adsorbents containing specific functional groups in practical use for REEs recovery. This aim of this study was to develop a nanofibre based adsorbent containing glycolic acid functional groups for the recovery of rare earth metals. Polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nanofibres were prepared by the electrospinning technique, glycolic acid functional groups were grafted onto the PS or PET nanofibres and the potential of the two modified nanofibre adsorbents for adsorption of Ce3+ or Nd3+ from aqueous solution were investigated and compared. The adsorption experiments were carried out to investigate the effect of different adsorption parameters such as pH, contact time and initial concentration in a batch system in order to achieve the objectives of this research.