<p> It is known that high-resistance training induces morphological changes in skeletal muscle. Following a resistance training program, increases in maximum torque generating capacity are observed due to both neural adaptations and hypertrophic gains within the trained muscle. Although it has been established that a muscle hypertrophies due to the addition of myofibrillar proteins through increased protein synthesis, the exact mechanism which stimulates the hypertrophic response is unknown.</p> <p> Previous reports have shown that training in the absence of eccentric contractions generally produces less muscle growth and strength gains, as well as inflicting less damage to the muscle ultrastructure. Likewise, fast eccentric contractions have been shown to increase muscular strength to a greater extent than slow contractions. It has been hypothesized that fast eccentric contractions may maximize muscular damage, thus invoking a greater response of repair mechanisms, including satellite cell recruitment, which would allow an increased addition of contractile proteins to be added to the injured muscle, increasing muscle size and strength to a greater degree.</p> <p> The effect of fast and slow eccentric training was investigated using a bilateral, within subject model. Twelve men trained one arm fast (3.66 rad/s) and one arm slow (0.52 rad/s) for 8 weeks on an isokinetic training apparatus. Type I muscle fibre size increased with training by an average of 9.3±12.0% (P<0.05, main effect for time). Type II muscle fibres increased more in the subjects' fast trained arm when compared to the slow trained arm according to ATPase histochemical analysis (P<0.05, time x condition interaction). Likewise, whole arm cross-sectional area showed that the fast trained arms had an average increase of 6.8±5.5 % whereas the slow arms only had an average increase CSA of 5.1±5.7% (P=0.065, time x condition interaction). Maximum torque generating capacity was also increased to a greater degree (P<0.05, time x condition interaction) in the fast trained arm with an average of 10.3±16.4 Nm, whereas the slow trained arm increased only 7.3±15.0 Nm, across testing speeds. A decrease in the percentage of type IIx fibres was seen in both arms after training according to both ATPase histochemical staining and MHC gel electrophoresis; however, the percentage of type IIa fibre area increased in the fast trained arms (8.4±8.6%) more significantly (P<0.05, time x condition interaction) than the slow trained arms (1.7±10.9%).</p> <p> Seven males were trained in a similar manner to determine the extent of muscle damage which was evaluated by both Z-band streaming and force production decrements. After a single exercise bout of fast eccentric training in one arm and slow eccentric training in the other, it was determined that a 1.97±0.74 areas of moderate Z-band streaming per mm^2 of muscle in the fast exercised arm compared to 0.89±0.79 areas of moderate Z-band streaming per mm^2 of muscle in the slow trained arm (P<0.05). In conclusion, training using fast (3.66 rad/s) eccentric contractions causes a greater degree of muscle damage, hypertrophy, and strength gains than does training with slow (0.52 rad/s) eccentric contractions.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

This Diploma Thesis is aimed at exploring the potential of offset crankshaft mechanism for four cylinder inline petrol engine in terms of reducing the frictional losses of the piston group. Thesis deals with the influence of eccentricity on kinematics, dynamics and balance of the crank train. Furthermore, specific crankshaft balancing is elaborated and applied on 3D CAD model of the crankshaft. Calculation of fatigue safety factor using the advanced LSA method that takes into consideration the effect of forced torsional vibration and utilizes outputs from the FEA software (ANSYS APDL) is performed as well. Thesis also includes design of two options of rubber torsion damper mounted on the engine belt pulley and the follow-up choosing of the more advisable one.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background: Understanding the contribution of divergent individual response patterns remains a key objective in identifying mechanisms of inflammation and potential factors limiting the resolution of inflammation. The purpose of this research project was to investigate downstream effects of inflammation following exercise-induced muscle damage in human subjects. Methods: For three different studies, a total of 53 untrained healthy male participants were recruited and divided into a non-exercising control (n=13) and exercise-induced muscle damage groups (n=40). The study design for the three studies was the same (with few exceptions): Downhill running (DHR) (12 x 5min bouts, 10% decline, 15 km.h-1) with blood samples taken pre, post, after 2 and 4 hours post-exercise (2h, 4h) and on days 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 (d1-d7). Serum was analysed for creatine kinase activity (CK), myoglobin (Mb), cortisol, cytokine (TNFα, IL-1ra, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, sIL-6R), chemokine (G-CSF, MIP-1β) and adhesion factor (sICAM-1, sP-selectin) concentrations. Tissue degradation was assessed by serum matrix metalloprotease (MMP-9) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) content. White blood cell differential count was determined and the surface expression of various cluster of differentiation factors (CD11b, CD163, CD68, CD88, CD34) as well as intracellular MPO were assessed in whole bood using flow cytometry. Nuclear localization of the inflammatory mediator NFĸB in isolated perhipheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was determined using immunofluorescence microscopy. Muscle biopsies (vastus lateralis) taken at baseline, 4h, d1 and d2 were analysed for fibre type, inflammatory and stress-induced pathways (STAT3, IĸBα, p38MAPK), myogenic factors (MyoD, myogenin), neutrophil activity (MPO) and satellite cell number (Pax7). Results: Participants in the DHR group were subdivided into those with a normal recovery (DHR1) and those who developed secondary damage (DHR2). CK peaked on d1 in both subgroups (DHR1: 1512 ± 413 u.L-1, DHR2: 1434 ± 202 u.L-1) and again on d4 only in the DHR2 group (1110 ± 184 u.L-1). A similar IL-6 and IL-10 response was evident immediately post DHR in all individuals. Additional IL-6 was released in the DHR2 subgroup peaking at 4h (10.3 ± 4.2 pg.mL-1) whereas IL-10 had returned to baseline. IL-1ra (23.6 ± 8.8 pg.mL-1), CD68+ (5%) and CD163+ (3%) monocytes were significantly higher in the DHR2 subgroup. Neutrophil count at 2h (DHR1: 8.6 ± 0.8 x109 cells.L-1, DHR2: 11.4 ± 1.8 x109 cells.L-1) was significantly (p<0.02) correlated to CK activity on d4. PBMC NFĸB p65 nuclear localization was slightly less at 2h in the DHR2 compared to the DHR1 and control groups. Intramuscular STAT3 signalling and MPO were significantly higher in the DHR2 compared to the DHR1 subgroup at 4h and d2 respectively. The progenitor cell response was similar for all DHR individuals with an increase in Pax7+ SC observed at 4h (0.06 ± 0.01 Pax+ SCs/fibre) and d1 (0.07 ± 0.02 Pax+ SCs/fibre). Conclusion: Healthy young men can be divided into those with a adequate and those with a less efficient capacity to control the post damage inflammatory response. The early cytokine response, especially IL-6, seems to be a key role player in the cascade of events leading to late secondary skeletal muscle damage. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond: Die begrip van uiteenlopende individuele reaksie patrone, is belangrik in die identifisering van faktore asook meganismes betrokke in die ontwikkeling en resolusie van inflammasie. Die doel van hierdie navorsingsprojek was om die gevolge van oefening-geïnduseerde spierskade en inflammasie te ondersoek in menslike proefpersone. Metodiek: ‘n Totaal van 53 gesonde mans is tydens drie verskillende studies, gegroepeer in ’n kontrole (geen oefening) (n=13) en oefening geinduseerde spier skade (DHR) groep (n=40). Die uitleg van de studies was eenders (met min uitsonderings): Afdraende hardloop (12 x 5min hardloop sessies, 10% afdraende, 15km.h-1) met bloed monsters geneem voor, na, 2 ure, 4 ure (pre, post, 2h, 4h) en op dag 1, 2, 3, 4 en 7 (d1-7). Serum is ontleed vir die volgende: kreatien kinase aktiwiteit (CK), kortisol, sitokiene (TNFα, IL-1ra, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, sIL-6R), chemokien (G-CSF, MIP-1β) en adhesie molekuul (sICAM-1, sP-selectin) konsentrasies. Weefsel degradasie is vasgestel deur die teenwoordigheid van matriks metalo-protease-9 (MMP-9) en miëloperoksidase (MPO) in serum te meet. Differensiële witbloed sel (WBC) telling asook die teenwoordigheid van sekere differensiasie faktore (CD11b, CD163, CD68, CD88, CD34) op die sel oppervlak asook intrasellulêre MPO vlakke is bepaal deur gebruik te maak van vloeisitometrie. Die lokalisering van NFĸB in die selkerne van geïsoleerde bloed mononukleêre selle (PBMC) is bepaal deur fluoriserende mikroskopie. Spierbiopsies (vastus lateralis) geneem tydens rus (basislyn), na 4h, en op d1 en d2 is ontleed vir veseltipe, inflammatoriese en stresverwante faktore (STAT3, IĸBα, p38 MAPK), miogeniese faktore (myoD, myogenin), neutrofiel aktiwiteit (MPO) en aantal satelliet selle (Pax7). Resultate: Deelnemers in die DHR-groep is onderverdeel in twee groepe. Persone wat normaalweg herstel het is saam gegroepeer (DHR1) en diegene wat sekondêre skade ontwikkel het is saam gegroepeer (DHR2). CK aktiwiteit in serum het hoogtepunte bereik op d1 in beide subgroepe (DHR1: 1512 ± 413 u.L-1, DHR2: 1434 ± 202 u.L-1) en weer op d4 in die DHR2 groep (1110 ± 184 u.L-1). 'n Soortgelyke IL-6 en IL-10 reaksie is onmiddellik na oefening (in al die proefpersone) waargeneem. Addisionele IL-6 is vrygestel in die DHR2 subgroep en het ’n hoogtepunt bereik na 4h (10.3 ± 4.2 pg.mL-1), terwyl IL-10 reeds teruggekeer het na rustende waardes. IL-1ra (23.6 ± 8.8 pg.mL-1), CD68+ (5%) en CD163+ (3%) monosiete was aansienlik hoër in die DHR2 subgroep. Neutrofieltelling na 2h (DHR1: 8.6 ± 0.8 x109cells.L-1, DHR2: 11.4 ± 1.8 x109cells.L-1) het verband (p <0,02) gehou met CK-aktiwiteit op d4. In vergelyking met die DHR1 en kontrole groep was die lokalisering van NFĸB p65 in PBMC selkerne na 2h effens minder in die DHR2 subgroep. STAT3- en MPO-vlakke in die spiere was aansienlik hoër in die DHR2 subgroep as in die DHR1 subgroep na 4h en op d2 onderskeidelik. Die spierherstel proses was eenders vir alle individue wat aan die oefening deelgeneem het; 'n toename in Pax7+ Satelietselle (SC) is waargeneem na 4h (0.06 ± 0.01 Pax+ SC/spiervesel) en op d1 (0.07 ± 0.02 Pax+ SC/spiervesel). Gevolgtrekking: Gesonde jong mans kan verdeel word in diegene met 'n bevoegde en diegene met 'n minder doeltreffende vermoë om oefenings-geïnduseerde spierskade en die inflammatoriese reaksie te beheer. Die sitokien-reaksie, veral IL-6, blyk om 'n belangrike rolspeler in die ontwikkeling van sekondêre skeletspierskade te wees.

Bakgrund: Hälsmärta drabbar en av 10 individer någon gång i livet, i cirka 80 procent av fallen är orsaken plantar fasciit. Läkningstiden för plantar fasciit kan bli mycket lång, i vissa fall upp till två år. Följsamhet till träningsprogram är av stor betydelse för utfallet vid fysioterapeutiska behandling. Syfte: Att undersöka hur styrketräning av tårnas flexormuskulatur, med fokus på excentrisk belastning, påverkar tilltro till aktivitetsnivå (rask promenad) och symtom vid plantar fasciit. Vidare är syftet att utifrån socialkognitiv teori undersöka faktorer av betydelse för följsamhet till träning, samt hur deltagarna upplever träningen. Metod: Studien har en A-B-A Singel-Case Design. Patienter tillfrågandes löpande på en privat fysioterapimottagning. Tre deltagare inkluderades i studien. Baslinjemätningen under två veckor (A1) följdes av sex veckor intervention med avslutande baslinjemätning under två veckor (A2). Data samlades in genom självrapporterade skattningar av variabler av intresse i en träningsdagbok. Visuell avläsning har gjorts utifrån trend och lutning. Resultat: Deltagare A visade på förbättring, B och C har kvarstående eller något ökade symtom. Samtliga deltagare visade på hög self-efficacy för utförande av övningen. Deltagare A och B visade på hög följsamhet och C på lägre följsamhet till träningsprogrammet. Slutsats: Författarens slutsats är att träningsupplägget är genomförbart för patienter med plantar fasciit. För eventuell gruppstudie kunde inklusions- och exklusionskriterier föreslås baserat på resultat av denna studie. / Background: Heel pain affects 1 in 10 individuals at some point in life, in about 80% of the cases, the cause is plantar fasciitis. The healing time for plantar fasciitis can be very long, in some cases up to two years. Adherence to treatment is of great importance for the outcome in physiotherapy. Aim: To investigate how the strength of the toe flexor, focusing on the eccentric load, affecting self-efficacy for activity (power walking) and symptoms of plantar fasciitis. Further to investigate and examine factors affecting adherence to exercise, and how participants feel the workout, based of social cognitive theory. Methods: The study has an A-B-A Single-Case Design. Patients asked to participate at a private physiotherapy clinic in Sweden. Three participants were included in the study. Baseline measurements was collected for two weeks (A1) that was followed by six weeks of intervention with ending baseline measurements for two weeks (A2). Data were collected through self-reported estimates of the variables of interest in a diary. Visual reading was made based on the trend and slope. Results: Participants A showed improvement, B and C have persistent or increased symptoms. All participants showed high self-efficacy for performing the exercise. Participant A and B showed high adherence and C showed lower adherence to the exercise program. Conclusions:. The author's conclusion is that the exercise program is feasible for patients with plantar fasciitis. For a future group study the inclusion and exclusion criteria are proposed to be based on the results of this study.

Aim Aerobic exercise may interfere with subsequent responses to strength training. The aim of this research was to examine the acute effects of cycling or running on subsequent leg strength performance. It was hypothesized that eccentric contractions induced by running would impair strength performance more than the cycling mode of exercise, which consist mainly of concentric muscle actions. Method In order to investigate if continuous running or cycling affected following strength performance, 6 healthy individuals (5 males, 1 female) were subjected to a randomized cross-over design. Subject characteristics were age (year) 25,5 ± 2,1, height (cm) 180,5 ± 6,4, and body weight (kg) 83 ± 3,4. The experimental sessions included three protocols: strength protocol (S) which included 3 repetitions measuring peak power followed by 3 sets to muscular failure at 80% of 1RM in the squat exercise; and continuous running (RS) and cycling (CS) conditions (40 minutes at 80% of maximal heart rate), followed by the S protocol. Peak power performance and total work volume was measured. Results Average peak power attained between the three protocols were CS = 1639± 444Watts (W), RS = 1633± 422 and S = 1565 ± 349. No significant differences were observed between the three conditions (P = 0,817). No differences across the three protocols was observed for highest peak power attained by each subject (P = 0,619). Total work volume performed (main effect P = 0,027) revealed a significant difference between CS = 2559 kg and S = 3715 kg (P=0,037), and CS and RS = 3345 kg (P=0,037) due to the lower loads lifted in CS.  Conclusions There were no differences observed between the three training protocols regarding peak power performance. When cycling exercise was performed prior to the strength session, the total volume lifted was lower than when performing the strength test alone. Thus, it is concluded that cycling exercise, but not running, interferes with subsequent strength training performance. / Syfte och frågeställningar Uthållighetsträning kan leda till försämrad styrkeprestation. Syftet med denna forskning var att undersöka de akuta effekterna från cykling eller löpning på efterföljande benstyrka. Hypotesen var att löpning, som omfattar excentriska muskelaktioner, skulle leda till en större försämring av efterföljande styrkeprestation jämfört med cyking, som främst omfattar koncentriska muskelaktioner. Metod För att undersöka om kontinuerlig cykling och löpning påverkade efterföljande benprestation, undersöktes 6 deltagare (5 män, 1 kvinna) i en randomiserad cross-over design. Försökspersonernas karakteristika var ålder (år) 25,5 ± 2,1, längd (cm) 180,5 ± 6,4, vikt (kg) 83 ± 3,4. Försökspersonerna utförde tre experimentella protokoll: styrka (S), vilket bestod av 3 repetitioner av maximal kraftutveckling efterföljt av 3 set till muskulär utmattning på 80% av 1RM i benböj; och löpning (RS) samt cykling (CS) protokoll (40-minuter på 80% av maximal hjärtfrekvens), efterföljt av S protokollet. Data för maximal kraftutveckling och total arbetsvolym samlades in.  Resultat Den genomsnittliga maximala effekten som uppnåddes mellan de tre protokollen var: CS = 1639 ± 444 Watt (W), RS = 1633 ± 422W och S = 1565 ± 349W. Inga signifikanta skillnader observerades mellan de tre förhållandena (P=0,817). Högst uppnådda effekten för varje deltagare mellan de tre förhållandena visade ingen skillnad (P=0,619). Totala arbetsvolymen (tidseffekt: P=0,027) visade signifikanta skillnader mellan CS = 2559 kg och S = 3715 kg (P=0,037), och CS och RS = 3345 kg (P=0,037) på grund av lägre vikt lyft vid CS. Slutsats Ingen skillnad observerades mellan de tre förhållandena angående maximal styrkeprestation. Den totala vikt volymen som kunde lyftas var dock lägre när cykling utfördes innan styrketestet. Slutsatsen är därför att cykling, men inte löpning, hindrar maximal träningsprestation vid ett efterföljande styrkepass.

A presente tese procura expor as linhas gerais do projeto estético de Hölderlin, tal como ele procurou realizá-lo entre 1793 e 1797. Anunciado em diversas cartas como uma tentativa de encontrar o princípio esclarecedor das oposições do espírito, tais como natureza e liberdade, sujeito e objeto, eu e não-eu, esse projeto estético toma por base a relação entre filosofia e poesia tal como a estabeleceu Kant na Crítica da Faculdade de Julgar, em especial na seção em que trata das ideias estéticas, da imaginação produtiva e do gênio, bem como aquela estabelecedia por Schiller em Sobre graça e dignidade, na medida em que este último procura fundar uma estética objetiva a partir dos esforços iniciados por Kant nesse mesmo sentido. Mas é principalmente ao entrar em contato com a filosofia da Doutrina-da-ciência, de Fichte, que Hölderlin vislumbra todo o potencial dessa relação entre filosofia e poesia. Em sua obra, afinal, Fichte atribui à imaginação criadora um papel ainda mais importante do que Kant, na medida em que, para aquele, a imaginação constitui a origem das separações encontradas no eu. O fato, porém, de que Hölderlin não realiza sua anunciada estética na forma teórica não impede de vê-la executada poeticamente em seu romance de formação Hipérion ou o eremita na Grécia. Assim como o filósofo da Doutrina-da-ciência reduz as oposições encontradas no eu à imaginação por meio do método da determinação recíproca, também Hipérion, na medida em que realiza a passagem da natureza para o âmbito da liberdade e da poesia, é capaz de unificar as oposições próprias da via excêntrica. / This thesis is intended to render an outline of the aesthetic project Hölderlin sought to carry out between 1793 and 1797. His aesthetic project, which in a number of letters he addressed as an attempt to find the principle enlightening such oppositions of spirit as nature and freedom, subject and object, self and not-self, is based upon the philosophy-poetry relationship as established by Kant in the Kritik der Urteilskraft, especially in the section dealing with aesthetic ideas, productive imagination, and genius, as well as the one Schiller establishes in Über Anmut und Würde to the extent he succeeds in founding an objective Aesthetics upon Kant\'s efforts to this effect. However, it was not before he got in touch with Fichte´s Wissenschaftslehre philosophy that Hölderlin realizes the entire potential of this philosophy-poetry relationship. After all, throughout his work Fichte assigns creative imagination a more important role than Kant does, as imagination, for the former, is the origin of the separations residing in the self. Hölderlin\'s failure to perform his announced Aesthetics in the form of theory, however, did not prevent him from accomplishing it poetically in his novel Hyperion or the Hermit in Greece. Just as the philosopher of the Wissenschaftslehre reduces unto imagination the oppositions in the self using the reciprocal determination method, Hyperion is also capable of unifying the oppositions pertaining to the eccentric path as it leads from nature into the realm of freedom and poetry.

A maioria dos silos existentes no mundo não apresenta condições ideais de operação devido ao insuficiente conhecimento das pressões exercidas pelo produto armazenado principalmente na situação de descarga. A descarga excêntrica é comum em cooperativas e indústrias pois facilita o acesso na descarga do produto armazenado em trens e caminhões. Em contrapartida, nesta situação surgem pressões assimétricas que são a maior causa de acidentes e colapsos em silos. Até mesmo em silos concêntricos, as pressões assimétricas podem ocorrer. Ainda faltam muitas respostas com relação ao comportamento das pressões na descarga excêntrica, por isso, a maioria das normas internacionais recomenda a adoção de pressões adicionais para levar em conta os efeitos das pressões assimétricas, sendo que, estas recomendações variam muito de uma norma para outra e muitas vezes não são claras em suas afirmações. Este trabalho teve por objetivo principal o estudo teórico e numérico das pressões devidas ao produto armazenado em silos verticais com descarga excêntrica. Os resultados obtidos mostram que para a determinação das ações em silos esbeltos para o armazenamento de produtos de fluxo livre uma boa solução é a utilização dos métodos recomendados pelas normas EUROCODE e DIN, com algumas ressalvas: pressão no fundo do silo segundo a AS, estabelecimento de coeficiente de sobrepressão mínimo de 1,2 e porcentagem mínima de variabilidade das propriedades dos produtos, mesmo quando elas forem obtidas por meio de testes experimentais. / Most of the silos do not meet the ideal requirements for operation ought to many factors. One of the main factors is related to the lack of knowledge about the pressure imposed by the stored material, especially during discharge. In this work, the discharge done through eccentric silos is investigated, which is commonly employed by cooperatives and factories once they facilitate the access of trains and trucks to the discharged product. In those situations there is the occurrence of asymmetric pressure, which is the major cause of collapses and accidents in silos. There are still many pending answers regarding the pressure behavior in eccentric discharge; therefore, most international standards recommend the adoption of additional pressures in order to consider the effects of asymmetric pressures. The recommendations, however, are very diverse and not always clear. The results obtained show that, in order to determine the actions in slim silos for free flow product storage, it is important to use the methods recommended by the EUROCODE and DIN standards, with some exceptions: refer to the AS regarding to the pressure on the bottom of the silo, define the minimum underpressure coefficient as 1.2, and minimum percentage of product property variability, even if they are achieved through experimental tests.

Este trabalho procura desenvolver um novo modelo para análise estrutural de chapeamentos reforçados, que propõe ligar dois elementos estruturais de diferentes formulações, a saber: - Elementos de viga, analisados utilizando-se o método da rigidez, baseado na teoria linear de vigas, sendo, portanto, dentro das hipóteses inerentes à teoria , um método exato. Para tanto, desenvolve-se um novo elemento chamado viga excêntrica; - elementos de placa, analisados utilizando-se o método dos elementos finitos, podendo trabalhar com cargas em flexão e cargas no próprio plano acarretando um comportamento de membrana. O novo elemento de viga excêntrica é introduzido no programa SAP-VI (1) (podendo no entanto utilizar-se de outros programas), sendo realizados testes de interação com os elementos finitos de placa existentes no programa (2). O novo modelo revelou-se economicamente viável quando da sua utilização em chapeamentos reforçados, evitando-se a divisão em elementos finitos dos enrijecedores, que têm seu próprio comportamento dentro da teoria simples de vigas. / This work develops a new model for structural analysis of stiffened plating, involving two elements of different formulation, that is: - beam elements, analysed by the matrix method, based in the linear theory of beams, being then, with the hypothesis inherent to that theory, an exact method. For this purpose, it is developed a new element called \"eccentric beam\"; - plate elements, analysed by the finit element technique, working in bending and with loads in it\'s own plane, occasioning a membrane effect. The \"eccentric beam\" element is introduced in the SAP-IV (1) program (we might, however, use other programs). Tests were then carried out to assess the proper interaction of plate elements (2) and \"eccentric beam\". It was demonstrated that the new model is advantangeous when used in stiffened plating, avoinding the division in finite elements of the stiffeners.

O dano muscular induzido pelo exercício (DMIE) é um fenômeno que ocorre ao realizarmos um exercício com o qual não estamos habituados, seja pela modalidade, volume ou intensidade. Além disso, esta condição está fortemente relacionada com contrações excêntricas ou gestos que predominantemente envolvam este tipo de contração, causando prejuízos funcionais importantes e diminuindo o desempenho. Diante disto, estratégias para acelerar o processo de recuperação muscular vem sendo investigadas. Dentre elas, a recuperação ativa, técnica muito utilizada no meio prático e que consiste na execução de exercícios com intensidade baixa ou moderada buscando melhorar a recuperação após uma sessão de treino mais intensa. No entanto, nenhum estudo comparou duas formas de recuperação ativa com exercícios aeróbios até o momento, além dos estudos experimentais da área apresentarem qualidade metodológica frágil. Com isso, o objetivo desta dissertação é comparar o efeito da recuperação ativa em esteira e em cicloergômetro sobre marcadores de dano muscular. Para isso, trinta voluntários do sexo masculino foram alocados de forma randomizada em três grupos: grupo esteira (GE, n = 10), grupo cicloergômetro (GCI, n = 10) e grupo controle (GC, n = 10). Avaliações da contração isométrica voluntária máxima (CIVM), dor, concentração plasmática de creatina kinase (CK) e lactato desidrogenase (LDH) e espessura e ecogenicidade dos músculos reto femoral (RF) e vasto lateral (VL) foram realizadas pré, 24h, 48h e 72h após um protocolo indutor de dano muscular, constituído por cinco séries de 10 contrações excêntricas máximas em dinamômetro isocinético. Após o protocolo indutor de dano muscular, os sujeitos realizaram a intervenção de acordo com o grupo em que foram alocados, com duração de 30 minutos e intensidade de 60% do VO2máx, independente da modalidade. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os grupos nos parâmetros de caracterização da amostra. Não houve diferença significativa entre os grupos em todas as variáveis analisadas. Houve redução significativa no torque nos períodos imediatamente após (IP), 24h, 48h e 72h comparado ao período Pré em todos os grupos. Houve aumento significativo da dor nos períodos 24h, 48h e 72h comparado ao período Pré em todos os grupos. Houve aumento significativo na espessura do músculo RF 24h após o protocolo de dano muscular. A ecogenicidade foi maior tanto no RF quanto no VL nos períodos de 48h e 72h quando comparada ao período Pré. Não houve diferença significativa nas concentrações plasmáticas de CK e LDH entre os períodos de avaliação. Os resultados do presente estudo permitem concluir que a execução de recuperação ativa nos parâmetros adotados, seja em cicloergômetro ou esteira, não modifica o processo de recuperação após dano muscular. / The exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) is a phenomenon that occurs when we execute an unusual exercise, either by type, volume or intensity. Furthermore, this condition is strongly associated with eccentric contractions or gestures which predominantly involve this type of contraction, causing significant loss of function and decreasing performance. In view of this, the search for strategies to accelerate muscle recovery process has been investigated. Among them, active recovery, technique widely used in practical means and which consists in carrying out exercises with low or moderate intensity seeking to improve recovery after a more intense training session. However, no studies have compared two types of active recovery yet, besides the experimental studies presented fragile methodological quality. Thus, the aim of this study is to compare the effect of active recovery on a treadmill and cycle ergometer on muscle damage markers. For this, thirty male volunteers were randomly divided into three groups: treadmill group (EG, n = 10), cycle ergometer group (GCI, n = 10) and control group (CG, n = 10). Evaluations of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), pain, plasma concentration of creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and muscle thickness and echo intensity of the rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) were performed before, 24h, 48h and 72h after the muscle damage protocol, comprising five sets of 10 maximum eccentric contractions using an isokinetic dynamometer. After muscle damage protocol, the subjects performed the intervention according to the group they were allocated, lasting 30 minutes with an intensity of 60% VO2max, regardless of the type. Significant differences between the groups in the sample characterization parameters were observed. There was no significant difference between groups in all variables. There was a significant reduction in torque in the periods immediately after (IP), 24h, 48h and 72h compared to the Pre period in all groups. There was a significant increase in pain at times 24h, 48h and 72h compared to the Pre period in all groups. A significant increase in muscle thickness of RF was observed in 24h period. The echo intensity was higher in both RF and VL in periods of 48h and 72h compared to the Pre period. There was no significant difference in plasma concentrations of CK and LDH between the evaluation periods. Our results illustrate that the performance of active recovery, in the adopted parameters, either in cycle ergometer or treadmill, does not change the process of recovery after muscle damage.

O exercício excêntrico tem sido utilizado na prevenção/reabilitação de lesões e em programas de treinamento de força para melhorar o condicionamento físico de indivíduos saudáveis. O entendimento das adaptações causadas pelo treinamento excêntrico nos músculos flexores plantares se justifica: 1) pela importância desta musculatura na manutenção de posturas e no ciclo da marcha; 2) pela alta incidência de lesões do tendão de Aquiles; e 3) pelo uso sistemático deste tipo de treinamento em programas de prevenção e reabilitação do tríceps sural. Assim, a presente tese de doutorado busca verificar os efeitos do treinamento excêntrico nas propriedades neuromecânicas e morfológicas dos músculos flexores plantares. No capítulo I foram compiladas informações acerca das adaptações neuromusculares dos flexores plantares e do tendão de Aquiles de indivíduos saudáveis submetidos à programas de treinamento excêntrico. Os estudos encontrados indicam que o treinamento excêntrico pode aumentar a produção de força e ativação muscular, especialmente em testes excêntricos. No entanto, resultados conflitantes e lacunas identificadas na literatura motivaram a realização de dois estudos originais. Os objetivos dos estudos originais foram: 1) determinar a temporalidade das adaptações na ativação e massa muscular de flexores plantares, bem como sua contribuição para os ganhos de força em contrações excêntricas, isométricas e concêntricas ao longo do programa de treinamento (Capítulo II); e 2) avaliar os efeitos de 12 semanas de treinamento excêntrico nas propriedades morfológicas, mecânicas e materiais do tendão de Aquiles de indivíduos saudáveis (Capítulo III). Vinte participantes do sexo masculino realizaram um programa de treinamento excêntrico isocinético (duas vezes por semana, 3-5 séries de 10 repetições máximas). As avaliações das propriedades neuromecânicas e morfológicas dos flexores plantares foram realizadas a cada quatro semanas. Ao final de 12 semanas, o programa de treinamento excêntrico aumentou a produção de torque máximo excêntrico, isométrico e concêntrico; aumentou a atividade eletromiográfica máxima excêntrica e isométrica; e aumentou a espessura muscular. Além disso, os ângulos do pico de torque excêntrico e concêntrico foram deslocados para posições em que os músculos estavam mais alongados. O torque máximo e a espessura muscular aumentaram progressivamente até a oitava semana de treinamento. A ativação neural durante contrações excêntricas e isométricas aumentou após quatro semanas de treino e permaneceu constante até o final do treinamento, enquanto que a ativação neural durante contrações concêntricas permaneceu inalterada durante todo o período de treinamento. Além disso, houve aumento da área de secção transversa, da rigidez e do módulo de Young do tendão de Aquiles. Os incrementos na rigidez e no módulo de Young foram observados após quatro semanas de treinamento, enquanto que o aumento significativo da área de secção transversa tendínea ocorreu após oito semanas de treinamento. Quando tomados em conjunto, estes resultados nos possibilitam entender de que forma as adaptações neuromecânicas e morfológicas dos flexores plantares ocorrem. O aumento da força isométrica e excêntrica nas primeiras quatro semanas de treinamento parece ocorrer devido a adaptações neurais, musculares e tendíneas. No entanto, após maiores períodos de treinamento (i.e. acima de quatro semanas), o aumento da força ocorre devido a incrementos na massa muscular e na rigidez tendínea. Além disso, a ausência de adaptações neurais evidencia que os ganhos de força concêntrica podem estar relacionados apenas com adaptações musculares e tendíneas. / Eccentric exercises are commonly used in prevention, rehabilitation and conditioning training programs. Understanding the adaptations caused by eccentric training on the plantar flexor muscles is justified by: 1) the importance of these muscles in maintaining posture and during gait cycle; 2) the high incidence of Achilles tendon injuries; and 3) the systematic use of this type of training in triceps surae prevention and rehabilitation programs. Thus, the present PhD thesis aims to verify the effects of eccentric training in neuromechanical and morphological properties of the plantar flexor muscles. Chapter I compiled information about the neuromuscular adaptations of the plantar flexors and Achilles tendon of healthy subjects undergoing eccentric training programs. The studies found indicate that eccentric training can increase the production of muscle strength and muscle activation, especially in eccentric tests. The studies found indicate that eccentric training can increase muscle strength and muscle activation, especially in eccentric tests. The purposes of the original studies were: 1) to determine the adaptations time course in plantar flexors activation and muscle mass, as well as their contribution to the strength gains in eccentric, isometric and concentric contractions during the training program (Chapter II); and 2) to evaluate the effects of 12 weeks of eccentric training on Achilles tendon morphological, mechanical and material properties in healthy subjects (Chapter III). Twenty male subjects performed an eccentric isokinetic training program (twice a week, 3-5 sets of 10 maximal repetitions). Plantar flexor neuromechanical and morphological evaluations were performed every 4 weeks. The 12-week training program led to increases in maximum eccentric, isometric and concentric torques; maximum eccentric and isometric electromyographic activity; and muscle thickness. The angles of peak torque in eccentric and concentric tests were shifted towards longer muscle lengths. Maximum torque and muscle thickness increased progressively until the 8th training week. Eccentric and isometric activation increased up to the 4th training week and remained constant until the 12th training week, while no change was found in concentric activation. In addition, Achilles tendon cross-sectional area, stiffness and Young's modulus were increased. The increases in stiffness and Young's modulus were observed after four weeks of training, while the significant increase in tendon cross-sectional area occurred after eight weeks of training. Taken together, these results allow us to understand how the neuromechanical and morphologic adaptations occur in the plantar flexors muscles subjected to a 12-week eccentric training program. The increase in isometric and eccentric strength in the first four weeks of training seems to be related to neural, morphological and tendinous adaptations. However, after longer training periods (i.e. up to four weeks), the strength increase is due to increases in muscle mass and tendon stiffness. Moreover, the absence of evidence in terms of neural adaptations during concentric contractions suggest that the concentric strength gains seem to be related only with muscle and tendon adaptations.