En el presente trabajo se estudia el impacto de la inversión en exploración minera sobre la economía local en el Perú. Para ello, se utiliza un pool de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (Enaho) para los años 2004-2016 junto con una base de datos sobre inversiones mineras en exploración georreferenciadas. La estrategia de estimación es el método de diferencias en diferencias, para el cual se determina un grupo de tratamiento y otro de control sobre la base de la distancia a las inversiones. Así, los principales hallazgos indican que, luego de 5 años del inicio de una inversión: (i) el salario real por hora de los trabajadores dependientes aumenta en 10,1% respecto al grupo de control; (ii) las horas trabajadas mensualmente por los dependientes aumentan en 7,7 horas, y para los independientes, en 12,8 horas; (iii) el ingreso mensual de los dependientes aumenta en 22%, y para los independientes, en 17%; (iv) el alquiler aumenta en 18,5%; y (v) la probabilidad de estar sano incrementa en 9,4%. Para poner en perspectiva estos incrementos, el efecto sobre el ingreso mensual de los trabajadores dependientes equivale a un desplazamiento del percentil 50 al 60. Por otro lado, se encuentra que las externalidades generadas por estas inversiones son más elevadas para los individuos que trabajan en un sector vinculado a la minería dado que su salario real aumenta en 30.2%. Los demás individuos también se ven beneficiados, aunque en menor medida, por lo que, al cabo de 5 años, su salario real aumenta en 8,1%. Finalmente, se encuentra evidencia de que la densidad de los caminos y la intensidad de la luz nocturna satelital aumentan en el área de tratamiento respecto del grupo de control para los años con información disponible. Los resultados anteriores sugieren que estos potenciales mecanismos podrían explicar en parte los spillovers generados por las inversiones mineras en exploración.

La economía compartida es un sistema que se basa en el desarrollo de las tecnologías de la información para el desarrollo de la cultura colaborativa, de tal manera que las personas puedas compartir bienes, servicios y experiencias con otras personas con una mayor eficiencia y a cambio de precio menores al mercado tradicional. La presente investigación analiza los factores que han permitido el desarrollo de la economía compartida en un potencial consumidor de la economía compartida en Lima, los millennials adultos. Dentro de este grupo, el perfil a evaluar debe contar con acceso a internet desde casa y sus dispositivos móviles, hacer uso del sistema bancario y contar con instrucción técnica completa o universitaria incompleta o completa. Para este fin se realizaron grupos focales y encuestas a manera de evaluar el impacto de las variables de cada factor que han permitido el desarrollo de la economía compartida en un contexto global, siendo estos factores la utilización de la tecnología, la seguridad ciudadana, el perfil psicográfico y los aspectos culturales y económicos. Como resultado se obtuvo que el potencial consumidor de la economía compartida en Lima se encuentra en plena capacidad para poder hacer uso de estos sistemas; sin embargo, a diferencia de los consumidores de otras partes del mundo, el consumidor limeño estudiado tiende a sobreponer la búsqueda de comodidad y privacidad sobre un fin social y de ahorro, lo cual nos lleva a pensar en la posibilidad de ampliar posteriores estudios a nuevos grupos de personas que tengan una menor necesidad de estados comodidades adicionales. / Tesis

La tesis aborda los procesos de transferencia de valor e intercambio desigual, en los actuales tiempos de cambio, realiza un análisis de la situación de la economía campesina y su interacción con la economía urbana, desde la perspectiva sociológica de la teoría del valor. La metodología empleada pasa por un análisis documental, y empírico cualitativo, toma como estudio de caso, la situación actual de la comunidad Llamacachi, para abordar el tema se realizo una descripción del sistema de producción, sus formas de vinculación con el mercado, y los procesos de intercambio desigual, se hizo una descripción de costos de producción de tres cultivos (papa, cebolla y haba). La consideración del conjunto de estos aspectos llevó a determinar cuáles son los mecanismos de transferencia de valor

La hipótesis de la investigación es que en las redes de ciudades se generan economías externas de red. Por tanto, el objetivo de la investigación es avanzar en el estudio de la relación entre las redes de ciudades y la generación de economías externas que afectan al crecimiento y al desarrollo económico.La unidad de análisis es la unidad urbana. La unidad urbana (ciudad, municipio) es una unidad económica intermedia entre el proceso productivo y el conjunto del sistema económico. La investigación se estructura en cuatro bloques: el primero, de naturaleza teórica, introduce el paradigma de las redes de ciudades (capítulo 1), los fundamentos de las economías de red (capítulo 2), y una colección de casos documentados de redes de ciudades (capítulo 3); el segundo bloque se dedica al diseño de metodologías para la identificación de redes de ciudades (capítulo 4), y a su aplicación sobre el caso de estudio: los municipios de Cataluña (capítulo 5); el tercer bloque se dedica al diseño de metodologías para la medición de las economías externas de red (capítulo 6), y su aplicación sobre el caso de estudio (capítulo 7); el capítulo 8 introduce brevemente las políticas económicas asociadas a las redes de ciudades, y en el capítulo 9 se ofrecen las conclusiones generales de la investigación.La principal conclusión es que existe una relación causal entre la organización de las unidades urbanas formando redes de ciudades y la generación de economías externas que afectan al crecimiento y desarrollo económico. / The hypothesis of the research is that networks of cities generate external network economies. Therefore, the objective of this research is to advance the study of whether networks of cities generate external economies that influence economic growth and development.The unit of analysis is the urban unit. The urban unit (city, municipality) is an intermediate economic unit between the productive process and the economic system as whole. The research is structured in four parts: the first part, of theoretical nature, introduces the paradigm of networks of cities (chapter 1), the foundations of the network economies (chapter 2), and a collection of documented cases of networks of cities (chapter 3); the second part is dedicated to the design of methodologies for the identification of networks of cities (chapter 4), and its application to a case study of the municipalities of Catalonia (chapter 5); the third part is dedicated to the design of methodologies for the measurement of the external network economies (chapter 6), and its application to the case study (chapter 7); chapter 8 introduces the economic policy associated to the networks of cities, and chapter 9 offers the general conclusions of the research.The main conclusion is that there is a causal relationship between the organization of the economic units forming networks of cities and the generation of external economies that influence economic growth.

The concept of Region is one of the elements which has differentiated Regional Economics from other fields of Applied Economics. In spite of this, however, researchers in this field of economic analysis have not paid a great deal of attention to this concept. All too often, Regions have been identified with the politico-administrative units into which nationstates have divided their territory and for which statistical information is widely available. However, a Region can be defined in many different ways. Frameworks which define regions according to analytical/theoretical criteria provide greater scope for applied studies and permit a more complete interpretation of the results contained therein. In this research we have proposed a concept of Region which goes beyond the administrative division of territory. Our regional aggregation has been based on agglomeration economies, one of the fundamental concepts in the fields of Economic Geography and Urban and Regional Economics. In accordance with the work of Polèse et al. (2007), the territory has been classified into analytical regions which take into account the size of the population and the distance from the main urban areas. In doing so, we achieve an aggregation which corresponds with the differences in agglomeration economies across space. However, their robustness in comparison with the administrative units commonly used has - to date - not been evaluated.The objective of the first chapter of this thesis was to prove that the functional regions defined under such economic criteria provide better defined regions - in terms of greater compactness and separation - than the administrative ones commonly used to carry out labour market studies at sub-national level. Using micro data from the last available Spanish Census, the functional and administrative regions are evaluated using the Theil index and the Davies-Bouldin Validation index. Applied to employment (by gender, industry and level of qualification and occupation), both indexes show better results for the analytical regions than for any of the ordinary administrative ones (NUTS I, II or III regions). In other words, the analytical classification generates areas where the distribution of employment is more homogeneous within and more heterogeneous between the regions. Agglomeration economies and distance (to the metropolis) seem to be relevant for understanding the patterns of distribution of employment, either by gender, by industry or by level of qualification and occupation. In practice, this provides a clearer way for identifying local labour markets and explaining their differences and similarities. In light of the results from the first chapter, we suggest the use of this alternative classification -subject, of course, to the availability of data - when carrying out Labour Economics studies that include a spatial dimension. The following chapters have provided two applications of this analytical division of the territory to Labour Economics issues: the factors affecting the probability of being employed (Chapter 2) and the effects that labour mobility and commuting have on the central regions (Chapter 3). In the second chapter, we presented a spatial analysis of employment at local level where, among other factors, the demographic and geographical characteristics can and do affect the outcome. The empirical results support the hypothesis that size - in terms of population - and location - in terms of distance to a metropolis - are explanatory variables for the probability of being employed. In other words, employment depends not only on the personal characteristics of the individuals (level of education, age, sex, etc.) but also on the type of analytical region - as defined in Chapter 1 - where they live. Regarding the importance of location, our results show a significant gap in the chances of being employed between "central" and "peripheral" types of regions, i.e., the closer the region is to the metropolis, the higher the concentration of economic activity and therefore employment. Likewise, the types of regions, i.e., the closer the region is to the metropolis, the higher the concentration of economic activity and therefore employment. Likewise, theexpected negative relationship between employment and the size of the region where the individual lives is confirmed, and this seems to be stronger for non-skilled individuals than for people with university studies. In terms of employability, the largest Spanish metropolitan areas (MA1) seem to be enjoying the full benefits of agglomeration economies while the smaller metropolitan areas (MA2) seem to be suffering their negative effects. Likewise, for urban areas that cannot be considered "metropolitan areas" (UA1 and UA2), size does not seem to be as important as their central-peripheral location. In rural areas (less than 50,000 inhabitants), both size and distance seem to be relevant determinants of employability. In other words, regardless of the level of studies, there are fewer chances of being employed in rural areas as opposed to urban areas and in peripheral rural areas as opposed to central rural areas. Recognizing the importance of these spatially differentiated results should have a significant impact on current policy discussions, shifting the focus from general solutions to more spatially customized ones where size and location are considered. Just as differences in age, gender or industrial structure are taken into account in the design of employment policies (at national or local level), these results suggest that an additional spatial dimension that somehow includes the size and location of the local area where the person lives should be considered. Some important migration policy implications can also be derived when using these alternative functional regions to analyze the direct and indirect effects that the arrival of workers has in the core regions. Spain has experienced over the last two decades an intense arrival of both immigrants and in-migrants to its central regions, and as a consequence (though not exclusively) of these inflows, we can observe internal migrations and/or commuting to some areas that might be more attractive. Using the last available Census, the estimations for Spain of an input-output multi-regional model that includes the possibility of commuting show that the arrival of in- and im-migration to the core generates a set of effects induced by the redistribution of population among other regions. The arrival of workers from the periphery to the core provokes reallocations of residence in all cases (displacement effect).However, the intensity of these reallocations increases with size, which shows the existence of some agglomeration diseconomies associated with big cities. When the possibility of commuting is also considered, the arrival of workers from the periphery to the core generates the reallocation of both jobs (economic activity) and residences. The larger cities are the ones pushing out more residents to other areas, while keeping most of the jobs. In other words, they are becoming attractive areas to work in, but not to live in (due to, among other reasons, high housing costs, congestion or other negative externalities). The oppposite is true for the smaller cities, which are attractive for residing in but for working in. The distributional pattern of residences proves to be different to the distributional pattern of jobs. These results highlight the idea that the effects of the arrival of population are not only felt by the recipient region/city but may generate comparatively far larger effects on other regions in the form of internal migration and commuting flows, something that policy makers should bear in mind. To conclude, surpassing the administrative division of the territory, this classification manages to have explanatory power in spatial Labour Economics topics while including relevant geo-economic characteristics such as location and agglomeration economies. The use of this classification has proved to offer a better understanding of the patterns of distribution of employment (by gender, by industry or by level of qualification and occupation), job opportunities, and of the probabilities of being employed depending on the level of qualification or the degree of attractiveness of a region for working or living purposes. Some other questions spatially related to the performance of regional labour markets remain unanswered. Future lines of research include the application of this classification to the study of labour economic issues such as the determinants of unemployment, inter-industrial labour mobility or the existence of overqualification taking into account spatial factors (i.e. the type of analytical region where the potential worker lives) which are usually ignored.Agglomeration economies and distance play an important role in the location of economic activity, and therefore should affect the labour outcomes once the worker has decided to live in certain type of region. Obviously, such a decision does not have to be permanent, and workers can move in order to improve their labour opportunities. Therefore, a further possible question of relevance is the internal migration decisions between and within analytical regions. That is, can certain regularities be observed? Are people moving from peripheral regions to central or metropolitan areas or the other way round? Are internal migrations better explained in terms of size, i.e. in terms as counter-urbanization or urbanization? Are these movements linked to job opportunity decisions? Can we observe any differences according to their level of qualification? Even more, workers can be employed in a certain type of region but live in another, i.e., we could observe migration on a daily basis (commuting). Is one type of analytical region attracting workers or attracting residents? Do people tend to live and work in the same type of region? Could the analytical division be improved in order to specifically include the commuting criteria used in the local labour markets literature? We believe that these questions provide a fascinating and important future research agenda.

La economía compartida es un sistema que se basa en el desarrollo de las tecnologías de la información para el desarrollo de la cultura colaborativa, de tal manera que las personas puedas compartir bienes, servicios y experiencias con otras personas con una mayor eficiencia y a cambio de precio menores al mercado tradicional. La presente investigación analiza los factores que han permitido el desarrollo de la economía compartida en un potencial consumidor de la economía compartida en Lima, los millennials adultos. Dentro de este grupo, el perfil a evaluar debe contar con acceso a internet desde casa y sus dispositivos móviles, hacer uso del sistema bancario y contar con instrucción técnica completa o universitaria incompleta o completa. Para este fin se realizaron grupos focales y encuestas a manera de evaluar el impacto de las variables de cada factor que han permitido el desarrollo de la economía compartida en un contexto global, siendo estos factores la utilización de la tecnología, la seguridad ciudadana, el perfil psicográfico y los aspectos culturales y económicos. Como resultado se obtuvo que el potencial consumidor de la economía compartida en Lima se encuentra en plena capacidad para poder hacer uso de estos sistemas; sin embargo, a diferencia de los consumidores de otras partes del mundo, el consumidor limeño estudiado tiende a sobreponer la búsqueda de comodidad y privacidad sobre un fin social y de ahorro, lo cual nos lleva a pensar en la posibilidad de ampliar posteriores estudios a nuevos grupos de personas que tengan una menor necesidad de estados comodidades adicionales.

Este artículo trata de los peregrinos de la ciudad de Cusco que participan en el juego de miniaturas en el santuario de Qoyllurit’i. Partiendo de una descripción del contexto socioeconómico urbano y de la ontología andina, este trabajo se propone explorar cómo podemos entender el juego, el significado de las miniaturas, y la importancia del peregrinaje en el contexto urbano contemporáneo. Una fuerte motivación para ir a Qoyllurit’i consiste en dar poder a los deseos en la vida y asegurar prosperidad económica para el futuro a través de relaciones recíprocas con lugares y objetos. En estas relaciones, valores como el respeto y la fe son importantes. Utilizando los conceptos analíticos de virtualidad y mímesis, analizo el juego como una forma de comunicación fundamentada en una ontología en la cual no se distingue entre naturaleza-cultura, materia-espíritu, significante-significado. Además, se muestra que las prácticas religiosas indígenas son procesos culturales y materiales que son recreados constantemente en relaciones continuas y recíprocas entre lo rural y lo urbano. El artículo se basa en dos años y dos meses de trabajo de campo etnográfico (2001-2002, 200-2007, 2008) en un pueblo joven de la ciudad de Cusco y en tres peregrinajes a Qoyllurit’i (2002, 2007, 2008). / This article is about the pilgrims from Cusco city who participate in the miniature game in the sanctuary of Qoyllurit’i. Starting with a description of the urban socioeconomic context and the Andean ontology, this text intends to explore how we may understand the game, the meaning of the miniatures, and the importance of the pilgrimage in the contemporary urban context. A strong motivation for going to Qoyllurit’i is to empower the desires of life and ensure economic prosperity for the future through reciprocal relations with places and objects. In these relations, values like respect and faith are important. Using the analytical concepts «virtuality» and «mimesis», the article analyzes the game as a form of communication based in an ontology in which there are no distinctions between nature-culture, signifier-signified, and matter-spirit. Furthermore, it shows that indigenous religious practices are cultural and material processes which are constantly recreated in continuous and reciprocal relations between the rural and the urban. The article is based on two years and two months of ethnographic fieldwork (2001-2002, 200-2007, 2008) in a neighborhood in Cusco city and in three pilgrimages to Qoyllurit’i (2002, 2007, 2008).