O presente trabalho pesquisou os processos de egocentrismo e descentração na do-cência no ensino superior e suas possíveis conseqüências sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem. O principal referencial teórico utilizado foi a Epistemologia Genética piagetiana. Procurou-se investigar a possibilidade de os professores diferenciarem o seu próprio ponto de vista dos pontos de vista dos alunos e a possibilidade de coordenarem os diferentes pontos de vista que se constituem em sala de aula. A coleta de dados baseou-se em uma metodologia qualitativa, consistindo numa adaptação do método clínico piagetiano. Realizaram-se en-trevistas com professores, observações de suas aulas e entrevistas com alunos. Os sujeitos pesquisados foram seis professores do quadro efetivo da UFRGS, de diferentes áreas de co-nhecimento, todos com mais de 10 anos de experiência docente nesta universidade. Foram encontrados três níveis do egocentrismo à descentração. O primeiro nível equivale àquele em que o professor não diferencia o ponto de vista do aluno do seu próprio ponto de vista. O segundo nível equivale àquele em que o professor diferencia os pontos de vista existentes em sala de aula, porém, não os coordena. O terceiro nível é aquele em que o professor, além de diferenciar, consegue coordenar os distintos pontos de vista que se cons-tituem em sala de aula. / The present paper deals with the processes of egocentrism and decentration in high-er education and possible consequences on teaching and learning. The main theoretical ref-erential utilized was Piaget's Genetics Epistemology. In writing the paper, an investigation was conducted on the possibility of teachers differentiating between their own viewpoint and their students' and the possibility of coordinating the diverse viewpoints that come up in a classroom. The data collection was based on a qualitative methodology, which consist-ed in an adaptation of Piaget's clinic method with teacher interviews, observation of their classes and student interviews. The survey subjects were six tenured teachers from different areas of knowledge, all of them with over ten years of experience teaching at UFGRS. Three levels were identified from egocentrism to decentration. The first level con-sists in a teacher who does not distinguish the students' viewpoint from his own. The sec-ond level is the one where the teacher differentiates the viewpoints in the classroom, but he or she does not coordinate them. The third level is the one where the teacher not only dif-ferentiates viewpoints, but is also able to coordinate the various viewpoints surfacing in the classroom. / El presente trabajo investigó los procesos de egocentrismo y descentración en la do-cencia en la enseñanza superior y sus posibles consecuencias sobre la enseñanza y el apren-dizaje. El principal referencial teórico utilizado fue la Epistemología Genética piagetiana. Se procuró investigar la posibilidad de que los profesores diferencien su propio punto de vista de los puntos de vista de los alumnos y la posibilidad de coordinar los diferentes pun-tos de vista que se constituyen en el salón de clases. La recolección de datos se basó en una metodología cualitativa que consistió en una adaptación del método clínico piagetiano. Se realizaron entrevistas con profesores, observaciones de sus clases y entrevistas con alum-nos. Los sujetos investigados fueron seis profesores del cuadro efectivo de la UFRGS, de diferentes áreas de conocimiento, todos con más de diez años de experiencia docente en es-ta universidad. Se encontraron tres niveles del egocentrismo a la descentración. El primer nivel equivale a aquel en el cual el profesor no diferencia el punto de vista del alumno del suyo propio. El segundo nivel equivale a aquel en el cual el profesor diferencia los puntos de vis-ta existentes en el salón de clases, pero no los coordina. El tercer nivel es aquel en el cual el profesor, además de diferenciar, consigue coordinar los distintos puntos de vista que se constituyen en el salón de clases.

O presente trabalho pesquisou os processos de egocentrismo e descentração na do-cência no ensino superior e suas possíveis conseqüências sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem. O principal referencial teórico utilizado foi a Epistemologia Genética piagetiana. Procurou-se investigar a possibilidade de os professores diferenciarem o seu próprio ponto de vista dos pontos de vista dos alunos e a possibilidade de coordenarem os diferentes pontos de vista que se constituem em sala de aula. A coleta de dados baseou-se em uma metodologia qualitativa, consistindo numa adaptação do método clínico piagetiano. Realizaram-se en-trevistas com professores, observações de suas aulas e entrevistas com alunos. Os sujeitos pesquisados foram seis professores do quadro efetivo da UFRGS, de diferentes áreas de co-nhecimento, todos com mais de 10 anos de experiência docente nesta universidade. Foram encontrados três níveis do egocentrismo à descentração. O primeiro nível equivale àquele em que o professor não diferencia o ponto de vista do aluno do seu próprio ponto de vista. O segundo nível equivale àquele em que o professor diferencia os pontos de vista existentes em sala de aula, porém, não os coordena. O terceiro nível é aquele em que o professor, além de diferenciar, consegue coordenar os distintos pontos de vista que se cons-tituem em sala de aula. / The present paper deals with the processes of egocentrism and decentration in high-er education and possible consequences on teaching and learning. The main theoretical ref-erential utilized was Piaget's Genetics Epistemology. In writing the paper, an investigation was conducted on the possibility of teachers differentiating between their own viewpoint and their students' and the possibility of coordinating the diverse viewpoints that come up in a classroom. The data collection was based on a qualitative methodology, which consist-ed in an adaptation of Piaget's clinic method with teacher interviews, observation of their classes and student interviews. The survey subjects were six tenured teachers from different areas of knowledge, all of them with over ten years of experience teaching at UFGRS. Three levels were identified from egocentrism to decentration. The first level con-sists in a teacher who does not distinguish the students' viewpoint from his own. The sec-ond level is the one where the teacher differentiates the viewpoints in the classroom, but he or she does not coordinate them. The third level is the one where the teacher not only dif-ferentiates viewpoints, but is also able to coordinate the various viewpoints surfacing in the classroom. / El presente trabajo investigó los procesos de egocentrismo y descentración en la do-cencia en la enseñanza superior y sus posibles consecuencias sobre la enseñanza y el apren-dizaje. El principal referencial teórico utilizado fue la Epistemología Genética piagetiana. Se procuró investigar la posibilidad de que los profesores diferencien su propio punto de vista de los puntos de vista de los alumnos y la posibilidad de coordinar los diferentes pun-tos de vista que se constituyen en el salón de clases. La recolección de datos se basó en una metodología cualitativa que consistió en una adaptación del método clínico piagetiano. Se realizaron entrevistas con profesores, observaciones de sus clases y entrevistas con alum-nos. Los sujetos investigados fueron seis profesores del cuadro efectivo de la UFRGS, de diferentes áreas de conocimiento, todos con más de diez años de experiencia docente en es-ta universidad. Se encontraron tres niveles del egocentrismo a la descentración. El primer nivel equivale a aquel en el cual el profesor no diferencia el punto de vista del alumno del suyo propio. El segundo nivel equivale a aquel en el cual el profesor diferencia los puntos de vis-ta existentes en el salón de clases, pero no los coordina. El tercer nivel es aquel en el cual el profesor, además de diferenciar, consigue coordinar los distintos puntos de vista que se constituyen en el salón de clases.

O presente trabalho pesquisou os processos de egocentrismo e descentração na do-cência no ensino superior e suas possíveis conseqüências sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem. O principal referencial teórico utilizado foi a Epistemologia Genética piagetiana. Procurou-se investigar a possibilidade de os professores diferenciarem o seu próprio ponto de vista dos pontos de vista dos alunos e a possibilidade de coordenarem os diferentes pontos de vista que se constituem em sala de aula. A coleta de dados baseou-se em uma metodologia qualitativa, consistindo numa adaptação do método clínico piagetiano. Realizaram-se en-trevistas com professores, observações de suas aulas e entrevistas com alunos. Os sujeitos pesquisados foram seis professores do quadro efetivo da UFRGS, de diferentes áreas de co-nhecimento, todos com mais de 10 anos de experiência docente nesta universidade. Foram encontrados três níveis do egocentrismo à descentração. O primeiro nível equivale àquele em que o professor não diferencia o ponto de vista do aluno do seu próprio ponto de vista. O segundo nível equivale àquele em que o professor diferencia os pontos de vista existentes em sala de aula, porém, não os coordena. O terceiro nível é aquele em que o professor, além de diferenciar, consegue coordenar os distintos pontos de vista que se cons-tituem em sala de aula. / The present paper deals with the processes of egocentrism and decentration in high-er education and possible consequences on teaching and learning. The main theoretical ref-erential utilized was Piaget's Genetics Epistemology. In writing the paper, an investigation was conducted on the possibility of teachers differentiating between their own viewpoint and their students' and the possibility of coordinating the diverse viewpoints that come up in a classroom. The data collection was based on a qualitative methodology, which consist-ed in an adaptation of Piaget's clinic method with teacher interviews, observation of their classes and student interviews. The survey subjects were six tenured teachers from different areas of knowledge, all of them with over ten years of experience teaching at UFGRS. Three levels were identified from egocentrism to decentration. The first level con-sists in a teacher who does not distinguish the students' viewpoint from his own. The sec-ond level is the one where the teacher differentiates the viewpoints in the classroom, but he or she does not coordinate them. The third level is the one where the teacher not only dif-ferentiates viewpoints, but is also able to coordinate the various viewpoints surfacing in the classroom. / El presente trabajo investigó los procesos de egocentrismo y descentración en la do-cencia en la enseñanza superior y sus posibles consecuencias sobre la enseñanza y el apren-dizaje. El principal referencial teórico utilizado fue la Epistemología Genética piagetiana. Se procuró investigar la posibilidad de que los profesores diferencien su propio punto de vista de los puntos de vista de los alumnos y la posibilidad de coordinar los diferentes pun-tos de vista que se constituyen en el salón de clases. La recolección de datos se basó en una metodología cualitativa que consistió en una adaptación del método clínico piagetiano. Se realizaron entrevistas con profesores, observaciones de sus clases y entrevistas con alum-nos. Los sujetos investigados fueron seis profesores del cuadro efectivo de la UFRGS, de diferentes áreas de conocimiento, todos con más de diez años de experiencia docente en es-ta universidad. Se encontraron tres niveles del egocentrismo a la descentración. El primer nivel equivale a aquel en el cual el profesor no diferencia el punto de vista del alumno del suyo propio. El segundo nivel equivale a aquel en el cual el profesor diferencia los puntos de vis-ta existentes en el salón de clases, pero no los coordina. El tercer nivel es aquel en el cual el profesor, además de diferenciar, consigue coordinar los distintos puntos de vista que se constituyen en el salón de clases.

In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden vier Studien vorgestellt, in denen untersucht wurde, wie altrozentrische (Mimikry) und egozentrische (Selbstprojektion) Prozesse der sozialen Kognition in Abhängigkeit vom sozialen Kontext und persönlichen Dispositionen reguliert werden. Studie 1 zeigte, dass die Tendenz, fröhliche Gesichtsausdrücke anderer nachzuahmen abhängig von dem mit der beobachteten Person assoziierten Belohnungswert ist. Die Auswirkung der Belohnung ging jedoch weder in die vorhergesagte Richtung, noch konnten wir einen Einfluss von Oxytocin, einem Hormon, das der Neurobiologie der sozialen Anpassung zugrunde liegt, finden. Studie 2 zeigte, im Vergleich zu vorherigen Studien, keine allgemeine Verbesserung der automatischen Nachahmung nach direktem Blickkontakt im Vergleich zum abgewandten Blick. Wir konnten jedoch potenzielle dispositionelle Faktoren (z.B. autistische Eigenschaften) identifizieren, denen unterschiedlichen Mimikry-Reaktionen auf den Blickkontakt zugrunde liegen könnten. Studie 3 kombinierte kurze Phasen der Emotionsinduktion mit psychophysischen Messungen der Emotionswahrnehmung. Es zeigte sich, dass emotionale Gesichtsausdrücke tendenziell als fröhlicher beurteilt werden, wenn Personen angeben, dass sie sich fröhlich im Vergleich zu traurig fühlen. Emotionale egozentrische Verzerrungen wurden in Studie 4 erneut untersucht. Im Gegensatz zu unseren Vorhersagen fanden wir jedoch keine stärkeren egozentrischen Verzerrungen, wenn die Teilnehmenden emotionale Gesichtsausdrücke von ähnlichen im Vergleich zu unähnlichen Personen beurteilten. In allen Studien fanden wir Hinweise für den kontextabhängigen Charakter der sozialen Kognition. Allerdings konnten wir einige der in der Literatur berichteten Phänomene nicht replizieren. Diese Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Notwendigkeit, die Robustheit und Generalisierbarkeit früherer Befunde systematisch neu zu bewerten. / This dissertation presents four studies that investigated how altercentric (mimicry) and egocentric (self-projection) processes of social cognition are regulated according to the social context and personal dispositions. Study 1 showed that the tendency to mimic others’ happy facial expressions depends on the reward value associated with the observed agent. However, the effects of reward were not in the hypothesised direction, nor could we detect an influence of oxytocin treatment, a hormone involved in the neurobiology of social adaptation. Study 2 could not detect a general enhancement of the tendency to automatically imitate others’ hand actions following direct gaze compared to averted gaze, in contrast to previous studies. However, we could identify dispositional factors (e.g., autistic traits) that might underlie different mimicry responses to gaze cues. Combining brief emotion induction blocks with psychophysical measures of emotion perception, Study 3 showed that facial emotional expressions tend to be judged as happier when individuals feel happy than when they feel sad. Emotional egocentric biases were replicated in Study 4. But contrary to our predictions, we did not find stronger egocentric biases when participants judged emotional facial expressions of similar compared to dissimilar others. Across all studies, we found evidence supporting the contextual nature of social cognition. However, we could not replicate some of the phenomena reported in the literature. These results highlight the need to systematically re-evaluate the robustness and generalizability of prior findings.

Text in Afrikaans / In hierdie studie is die aard en gevolge van bendegeweld onder kinders in die vroeë adolessente jare by bendegeteisterde skole in die Wes-Kaap ondersoek ten einde terapeutiese riglyne te bepaal vir leerders wat bendegeweld by die skool ervaar. Die verskynsel van bendegeweld is in die literatuur ondersoek. Die bio-ekologiese teorie van Urie Bronfenbrenner het as teoretiese grondslag vir die navorsing gedien, welke teorie die wedersydse invloed wat persone en hul omgewing op mekaar het, beskryf. Trauma by die vroeë adolessent en drie bestaande modelle vir traumaberading word bespreek, waarna ’n stel maatstawwe vir ’n traumaberadingsmodel uit die drie modelle sowel as die literatuur gekies word. Die empiriese navorsing is deur middel van sowel kwantitatiewe- as kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetodes gedoen. ’n Fokusgroepbespreking én onderhoude met onderwysers en skoolhoofde het plaasgevind om diepgaande inligting oor behoeftes ná voorvalle van bendegeweld te verkry. Twee in-diepte onderhoude is met persone wat kenners op die gebied van bendes en bendegeweld is, gevoer. Vervolgens is twee vraelyste, een vir leerders en een vir onderwysers en skoolhoofde, opgestel om vas te stel watter hulp hulle met betrekking tot ’n trauma-intervensieprogram benodig. Die studie het bevind dat bendegeweld leerders se akademiese prestasie sowel as hul emosionele en sosiale funksionering raak, terwyl dit gevoelens van magteloosheid en frustrasie by onderwysers en skoolhoofde veroorsaak. Die studie sluit af met ’n verskeidenheid aanbevelings oor die daarstel van terapeutiese riglyne vir opvoeders om die impak van bendegeweld op leerders by skole in bendegeteisterde gebiede te hanteer. / This study investigated the nature and effects of gang violence among children in the early adolescent stage of development at gang-infested schools in the Western Cape in order to identify therapeutic guidelines for learners who experience gang violence at school. The phenomenon of gang violence was explored in the literature study. The bioecosystems theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner was employed as the theoretical basis for the study, which describes the reciprocal influence between humans and their environment. Early adolescent trauma and three existing models for trauma counselling are discussed, followed by the selection of a set of criteria for a trauma counselling model based on the three models as well as the literature studied. The empirical research was carried out through both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. A focus group discussion as well as interviews with educators and principals were conducted in order to obtain in-depth information on their needs after incidents of gang violence. Two in-depth interviews have been conducted with professionals who are experts in the domain of gangs and gang related violence. This led to the development of two questionnaires, one for learners and one for educators and principals, to determine what type of support they need in terms of a trauma intervention programme. The study found that gang violence severely affects learners’ academic performance as well as their emotional and social functioning, while it creates feelings of frustration and powerlessness among teachers and principals. The study concludes by offering a range of recommendations for the formulation of therapeutic guidelines for educators to address the effects of gang violence on learners who attend schools in gang-infested areas. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

This diploma work consists of theorethical and practical part. The theorethical part contains general characteristics of difficult life situations as stress, frustration and conflict. There are also mentioned techniques and factors for coping difficult life situations. The practical part contains a research, which deals perception difficult life situations by adolescents. The research was carried out by two questionnaires. At the end of the practical part there is a summary and an evaluation of results.

Text in Afrikaans / In hierdie studie is die aard en gevolge van bendegeweld onder kinders in die vroeë adolessente jare by bendegeteisterde skole in die Wes-Kaap ondersoek ten einde terapeutiese riglyne te bepaal vir leerders wat bendegeweld by die skool ervaar. Die verskynsel van bendegeweld is in die literatuur ondersoek. Die bio-ekologiese teorie van Urie Bronfenbrenner het as teoretiese grondslag vir die navorsing gedien, welke teorie die wedersydse invloed wat persone en hul omgewing op mekaar het, beskryf. Trauma by die vroeë adolessent en drie bestaande modelle vir traumaberading word bespreek, waarna ’n stel maatstawwe vir ’n traumaberadingsmodel uit die drie modelle sowel as die literatuur gekies word. Die empiriese navorsing is deur middel van sowel kwantitatiewe- as kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetodes gedoen. ’n Fokusgroepbespreking én onderhoude met onderwysers en skoolhoofde het plaasgevind om diepgaande inligting oor behoeftes ná voorvalle van bendegeweld te verkry. Twee in-diepte onderhoude is met persone wat kenners op die gebied van bendes en bendegeweld is, gevoer. Vervolgens is twee vraelyste, een vir leerders en een vir onderwysers en skoolhoofde, opgestel om vas te stel watter hulp hulle met betrekking tot ’n trauma-intervensieprogram benodig. Die studie het bevind dat bendegeweld leerders se akademiese prestasie sowel as hul emosionele en sosiale funksionering raak, terwyl dit gevoelens van magteloosheid en frustrasie by onderwysers en skoolhoofde veroorsaak. Die studie sluit af met ’n verskeidenheid aanbevelings oor die daarstel van terapeutiese riglyne vir opvoeders om die impak van bendegeweld op leerders by skole in bendegeteisterde gebiede te hanteer. / This study investigated the nature and effects of gang violence among children in the early adolescent stage of development at gang-infested schools in the Western Cape in order to identify therapeutic guidelines for learners who experience gang violence at school. The phenomenon of gang violence was explored in the literature study. The bioecosystems theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner was employed as the theoretical basis for the study, which describes the reciprocal influence between humans and their environment. Early adolescent trauma and three existing models for trauma counselling are discussed, followed by the selection of a set of criteria for a trauma counselling model based on the three models as well as the literature studied. The empirical research was carried out through both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. A focus group discussion as well as interviews with educators and principals were conducted in order to obtain in-depth information on their needs after incidents of gang violence. Two in-depth interviews have been conducted with professionals who are experts in the domain of gangs and gang related violence. This led to the development of two questionnaires, one for learners and one for educators and principals, to determine what type of support they need in terms of a trauma intervention programme. The study found that gang violence severely affects learners’ academic performance as well as their emotional and social functioning, while it creates feelings of frustration and powerlessness among teachers and principals. The study concludes by offering a range of recommendations for the formulation of therapeutic guidelines for educators to address the effects of gang violence on learners who attend schools in gang-infested areas. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)