Machine strength grading of structural timber is a sawmill process by which considerable value is added to sawn products. The principle of such grading is that the strength of a timber member is predicted on the basis of a so called indicating property (IP) which, in general, represents an averaged value of the modulus of elasticity (MOE) measured over a board length of about one meter or more. A limitation of today’s grading methods is that the accuracy of strength predictions is often rather poor, which results in a low degree of utilization as regards structural potential of sawn timber. However, it has for many years been well known to researchers that much better strength predictions can be made by using localized MOE values, determined over a very short length, as IP. Still, the determination of such values in a sawmill production environment has been technically very difficult to achieve. In the research presented in this thesis, dot laser scanning with high resolution was utilized for detection of local fibre orientation on the surfaces of timber members. Since wood is an orthotropic material with superior structural performance in the longitudinal fibre direction, information about fibre orientation was, in combination with beam theory and measured wood material properties, used to determine the bending MOE variation along boards. By application of an IP defined as the lowest MOE found along a board, more accurate strength predictions than what is obtained by common commercial grading techniques was attained. The thesis also involves flatwise wet gluing of Norway spruce side boards into laminated beams. As side boards, being cut from the outer parts of a log, have excellent structural properties it was not surprising to find that the beams had high strength and stiffness, even when laminations of sawfalling quality were used. The possibility of grading boards in a wet state by means of axial dynamic excitation was investigated with a positive result and application of simple grading rules resulted in considerable improvement of beam bending strength. Finally, bending MOE variation determined on the basis of laser scanned fibre directions was used for identification of weak sections in laminations. Elimination of such sections by means of finger jointing showed that average lamination strength of a board sample could be improved by more than 35 percent. / Hållfasthetssortering av konstruktionsvirke är en sågverksprocess som innebär att värdet av det sågade virket ökar väsentligt. Principen för denna typ av sortering är att styrkan hos ett virkesstycke predikteras med utgångspunkt från en så kallad indikerande egenskap (IP) som oftast representeras av medelvärdet av elasticitetsmodulen (E-modulen) mätt över en sträcka av minst en meter utmed virkesstyckets längd. De sorteringsmetoder som används idag ger ofta prediktioner med relativt låg noggrannhet, vilket innebär att endast en begränsad del av det sågade virkets konstruktiva potential kan utnyttjas. Det är dock väl känt att avsevärt bättre prediktioner kan erhållas genom att använda en lokal E-modul, uppmätt över en mycket kort sträcka, som IP. I dagsläget saknas dock teknik för att kunna bestämma ett sådant lokalt värde vid produktionshastighet i ett sågverk. I den forskning som presenteras i denna avhandling har punktlaserskanning med hög upplösning använts för att bestämma fiberriktningens variation på ytorna av virkesstycken. Eftersom trä är ett ortotropt material med högst styvhet och styrka i longitudinell fiberriktning ger skanningsresultaten värdefull information om hur dessa egenskaper varierar längs en planka. Genom att kombinera informationen om fiberriktning med uppmätta virkesegenskaper och klassisk balkteori, kan böjstyvhetens variation utmed en planka beräknas med hög upplösning och därefter omräknas till en E-modul i böjning. Med en IP definierad som det lägsta värdet på nämnda E-modul utmed en planka kan en högre noggrannhet i prediktionen av hållfasthet uppnås, jämfört med vad som kan erhållas med dagens sorteringsmetoder. Avhandlingen omfattar också limträbalkar tillverkade av sidobräder av gran limmade i rått tillstånd. Eftersom sidobräder sågas från de yttre delarna av en stock har de vanligtvis utmärkta konstruktiva egenskaper. Det var därför inte förvånande att balkarna uppvisade hög styrka och styvhet, även i de fall lamellerna var av sågfallande kvalitet. Möjligheten att med hjälp av axiell dynamisk excitering sortera sidobräder i rått tillstånd undersöktes med positivt resultat och genom att använda sorterade lameller kunde balkarnas styrka förbättras avsevärt. Den ovan beskrivna metoden att med utgångspunkt från bl.a. skannade fibervinklar bestämma styvhetens variation längs virkesstycken utnyttjades sedan för att identifiera svaga snitt i lameller av sidobräder. Genom att eliminera sådana snitt med hjälp av fingerskarvning kunde medelhållfastheten för ett stickprov sidobrädor höjas med mer än 35 %.

Large wind turbine blades, manufactured from fibre reinforced laminated composite materials, are key structural components of wind turbine systems. The demands for efficient and accurate modelling techniques of these composite blades have significantly increased. Over past decades, although complex computational models have been widely developed, more analytically based models are still very much desired to drive the design and optimization of these composite blades forward to be lighter, stronger, efficient and durable. The research work in this thesis aims to develop such more analytically based aerodynamic, structural and aero-elasticity models for large wind turbine blades manufactured from fibre reinforced laminated composite materials. Firstly, an improved blade element momentum (BEM) model has been developed by collectively integrating the individual corrections with the classic BEM model. Compared to other existing models, present BEM model accounts for blade tip and root losses more accurately. For laminar flow, the 3-D cross-flow is negligibly small. In this case, present BEM model with statically measured 2-D aerodynamic coefficients agrees closely to experimental measurements. However, stall delay correction is required for a 3-D rotating blade in stall. A new stall delay model is developed based on Snel s stall delay model. Verifications are performed and discussed for the extensively studied NREL UAE phase-VI test. The predictions of distributive and collective factors, e.g. normalised force coefficients, shaft torque and etc. have been compared to experimental measurements. The present BEM model and stall delay model are original and more accurate than existing models. Secondly, significant deficiency is discovered in the analytical thin-walled closed-section composite beam (TWCSCB) model proposed by Librescu and Vo, which is widely used by others for structural modelling of wind turbine blades. To correct such deficiency, an improved TWCSCB model is developed in a novel manner that is applicable to both single-cell and multi-cell closed sections made of arbitrary composite laminates. The present TWCSCB model has been validated for a variety of geometries and arbitrary laminate layups. The numerical verifications are also performed on a realistic wind turbine blade (NPS-100) for structural analysis. Consistently accurate correlations are found between present TWCSCB model and the ABAQUS finite element (FE) shell model. Finally, the static aero-elasticity model is developed by combining the developed BEM model and TWCSCB model. The interactions are accounted through an iterative process. The numerical applications are carried out on NPS-100 wind turbine. The numerical results show some significant corrections by modelling wind turbine blades with elastic coupling.

Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons développé un outil numérique, basé sur une formulation intégrale en éléments de frontière, qui permet une analyse classique du comportement d'une fissure 3D soumise à des sollicitations mécaniques complexes. Cet outil industriel est destiné à être intégré dans un code de calcul à usage industriel. Dans le but d'appréhender l'impact de la microstructure sur le comportement en fissuration fragile, nous nous sommes intéressés aux modèles de comportement non local. Nous avons commencé par adopter le modèle de comportement élastique non local de Eringen, qui permet de décrire plus finement le comportement élastique au voisinage de la fissure en prenant en compte les interactions à longue distance au sein du matériau. Cette modélisation du comportement conduit, contrairement à l'approche classique, à un un champ de contrainte fini sur le front de la fissure et localement maximal en avant du front. Ces résultats montrent qu'il est possible de prévoir la stabilité et la direction de propagation de la fissure à l'aide d'un critère plus simple et plus naturel, basé sur les variations du champ de contrainte au voisinage du front de la fissure. La stratégie numérique adoptée permet de traiter indifféremment des cas de fissure en traction, compression, cisaillement ou sollicitation mixte. L'intérêt de l'approche non-locale étant clairement démontré, nous avons considéré la version améliorée du modèle de Eringen telle que proposée par Polizzotto. Cette modélisation est la plus appropriée pour les milieux finis et requiert une mise en oeuvre numérique particulière. Les bases d'une méthodologie numérique, initiée par R. Kouitat ont été établies. Cette méthode est fondée sur un couplage des éléments de frontière avec une méthode de collocation par points d'équations aux dérivées partielles. Les premiers résultats obtenus dans ce cadre sont très encourageants et montrent qu'il sera effectivement possible de traiter le phénomène irréversible de fissuration de la même façon que les problèmes de plasticité / In this thesis, we have developed a numerical tool, based on a classical boundary elements method, which allows a conventional analysis of a stationary crack in a 3D specimen under complex mechanical loading. In order to assess the impact of the microstructure on the brittle fracture, we were interested in non local models of behavior. First, we have adopted the non local elastic model due to Eringen. This refined constitutive equation allows to account for long range interactions in the description of the elastic behavior in the vicinity of the crack front. Unlike the traditional approach, this type of model leads to a finite stress field at the crack front. Moreover, the stress is locally maximal ahead of the front. These interesting results indicate that it is possible to predict the stability and direction of crack propagation in a simple and more naturel way by using stress based criteria. The implemented numerical strategy can handle cases of crack in tension or compression, under shear stress or mixed loadings. Having clearly highlighted the interest of non local models, we have adopted the improved version of Eringen elastic model as proposed by Polizzotto. This elastic model is applicable to finite domains and requires a specific numerical treatment. The basis of such a numerical strategy initiated by R. Kouitat has been established. The method couples the conventional boundary element method with local point interpolation of a strong form differential equation. Promising results are obtained and show that with such modeling of material behavior, it is possible to describe the irreversible process of fracturing in a similar way as plasticity

This study uses logistic regression to estimate the probability of choosing the brand-name drug despite the presence of cheaper generics given patient and drug characteristics in the Czech pharmaceutical market in the period 2009-2013. Results of the analysis may help guide policies to decrease pharmaceutical costs. In order to motivate people who are more likely to choose the original version of drug, policy makers may impose higher copayments and lower subsidies on the original drugs which they use. Additionally, two supplementary analyses were applied to sub-sectors of the pharmaceutical market: antihypertensive drugs and antibiotics. Fixed effects logistic regression is employed to test the robustness of the results.

[pt] A modelagem matemática de microdispositivos, em que estrutura e microestrutura têm aproximadamente a mesma escala de magnitude, assim como de macroestruturas de natureza predominantemente granular ou cristalina, requer uma abordagem não-local de deformações e tensões. Há mais de cem anos os irmãos Cosserat já tinham desenvolvido uma teoria de grãos rígidos. No entanto, e sem detrimento de desenvolvimentos devidos a Toupin e outros pesquisadores, os trabalhos de Mindlin na década de 1960 podem ser considerados a base da chamada teoria gradiente de deformações, que se tornou recentemente objeto de um grande número de investigações analíticas e experimentais, motivadas pelo desenvolvimento de novos materiais estruturais e do crescente uso de dispositivos micro- e nanomecânicos na indústria. Mais recentemente, Aifantis e colaboradores conseguiram desenvolver uma teoria gradiente de deformações mais simplificada, com base somente em duas constantes elásticas adicionais, representativas de comprimentos característicos relacionados às energias de deformação superficial e volumétrica. Uma série de trabalhos recentes desenvolvidos por Beskos e colaboradores estendeu o campo de aplicações da proposta inicial de Aifantis e introduziu uma solução fundamental que de fato remonta aos trabalhos de Mindlin. A equipe de pesquisa de Beskos propôs as primeiras implementações 2D e 3D de elementos de contorno para análises de elasticidade gradiente tanto estáticas quanto no domínio da freqüência, inclusive para problemas da mecânica da fratura. Desde o tempo de Toupin e Mindlin procura-se estabelecer uma base variacional da teoria e uma formulação consistente das condições de contorno cinemáticas e de equilíbrio, o que parece ter tido êxito com os recentes trabalhos de Amanatidou e Aravas. Esta dissertação faz uma revisão da teoria gradiente da deformações e apresenta um estudo didático do problema mais simples que se possa conceber, que é o de uma barra sob diferentes tipos de ações axiais (Aifantis, Beskos). A solução fundamental para problemas 2D e 3D também é apresentada e estudada, tanto em termos de forças pontuais aplicadas, para uma implementação em termos de elementos de contorno, quanto de desenvolvimentos polinomiais (no caso estático), para implementação em termos de elementos finitos. Mostra-se que a teoria gradiente de deformação de Aifantis é adequada a uma formulação no contexto do potencial de Hellinger-Reissner, o que possibilita implementações híbridas de elementos finitos e de contorno. O presente trabalho de pesquisa objetiva o estudo do estado da arte no tema, com uma abordagem dos principais problemas de implementação computacional, inclusive em termos das integrais singulares que surgem. O desenvolvimento completo de programas de análise de elementos híbridos finitos e de contorno, para problemas estáticos e dinâmicos, está planejado para uma tese de doutorado em futuro próximo. / [en] The mathematical modeling of micro-devices in which structure and the microstructure are about the same scale of magnitude, as well as of macrostructure of markedly granular or crystal nature (microcomposites), demands a nonlocal approach for strains and stresses. More than one hundred years ago the Cosserat brothers had already developed a theory for rigid grains. However, and in no detriment due to Toupin and other researchers, Mindlin s work in the 1960s may be accounted the basis of the so-called strain gradient theory, which has recently become the subject of a large number of analytical and experimental investigations motivated by the development of news structural materials together with the increasing use of micro and nano-mechanical devices in the industry. More recently, Aifantis and coworkers managed to develop a simplified strain gradient theory based only on two additional elasticity constants that are representative of material lengths related to surface and volumetric strain energy. A series of very recent works done by Beskos and collaborators extended the field of applications of Aifantis propositions and introduced a fundamental solution that actually remounts to developments already laid down by Mindlin. Beskos workgroup may be regarded as the proponent of the first of the first boundary element 2D and 3D implementations on the subject for both statics and frequency-domain analyses, also including crack problems. Since Toupin and Mindlin`s time, investigations have been under development to establish the variational basis of the theory and to consistently formulate equilibrium and kinematic boundary conditions established by Amanatidou and Aravas. This dissertation makes a revision of the gradient strain elasticity theory and presents a didactic study of the simplest problem that can be conceived, i.e., a bar under different axial actions (Aifantis, Beskos). The fundamental solution for 2D and 3D problems is also presented and studied for an elastic medium submitted to a point force, for boundary methods developments, as well as submitted to polynomial stress fields (for static problems), as in the hybrid finite element method. It is shown that Aifantis strain gradient theory may be developed in the context of the Hellinger-Reissner potential, for the sake of hybrid finite and boundary element implementations. Goal of the present research work is as a detailed study of state art of the theme, which comprises an investigation of the singular integrals one must deal with in a computational implementation. The complete computational development for static and dynamic hybrid boundary/finite analyses is planned for a future doctoral thesis.

Les mousses liquides sont très utilisées dans l'industrie comme dans la vie quotidienne. Cependant, leur stabilité n'est ni complètement comprise ni complètement maîtrisée, la formulation étant essentiellement empirique. Il est donc difficile d'une part de prédire la capacité d'une solution de tensioactifs à générer des mousses et d'autre part de prédire et de contrôler leur déstabilisation. Ce travail de thèse propose des expériences conceptuellement simples qui s'appuient sur le caractère multi-échelle des mousses pour tenter d'établir des liens clairs entre physico-chimie et mécanismes de déstabilisation. Dans un premier temps, nous avons revisité une expérience d'entraînement de films liquides sur un cadre pour illustrer la stabilité des films lors de la génération des mousses ou pendant un réarrangement (processus T1). Nous avons mis en lumière l’existence de deux régimes. Un régime dit non confiné, pour lequel la stabilité des films et réduite et dépend de la physico-chimie. Un régime dit confiné pour lequel le rôle de la physico-chimie est limité et la stabilité est majoritairement contrôlée par l’hydrodynamique.Dans un second temps nous nous sommes intéressés à l'influence de la physico-chimie et de la fraction liquide sur la compétition entre coalescence et mûrissement grâce à l'étude d'une unique couche de bulles (mousse 2D). Nous proposons une méthode de mesure in situ de la perméabilité des films par l'étude simple et rapide du régime transitoire du mûrissement de mousses 2D. Nous avons observé une corrélation entre coefficient de diffusion du gaz contenu dans les bulles et perméabilité.Enfin nous décrivons les résultats d’une expérience spatiale sur le vieillissement à temps long des mousses humides (fraction liquide supérieure à 30% en volume), extrêmement difficile sur Terre à cause du drainage gravitaire, et à laquelle nous avons participé. / Liquid foams are widely used in industry and in everyday life. However, their stability is not fully understood or fully controlled, their formulation being essentially empirical. It is therefore difficult to predict the ability of a surfactant solution to generate foam and to control their destabilization. This thesis proposes simple experiments that rely on the multi-scale nature of foams in order to attempt to establish clear links between physical chemistry and stability.First of all, we revisited an experiment of liquid films entrainment to illustrate the stability of foam films during generation or rearrangement (T1 process). We have shown the existence of two regimes: (i) a unconfined regime, for which the stability of films is reduced and depends on physical chemistry and (ii) a confined regime for which the role of physical chemistry stability is limited and is mainly controlled by hydrodynamics.Secondly, we investigated the influence of physical chemical and liquid fraction on the competition between coalescence and coarsening thanks to the study of a single layer of bubbles (2D foam). We propose a method for in situ measurement of the permeability of films by simple and fast study of the transient regime of coarsening in 2D foam. We observed a correlation between diffusion coefficient of gas and permeability.Finally we describe the results of a space experiment on wet foam aging at large times (volume liquid fraction higher than 30%), extremely difficult on Earth because of gravity drainage, and to which we participated.

Introdução: Existe crescente interesse em identificar marcadores de risco para eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com HIV/aids. Atualmente observa-se alteração do perfil epidemiológico desses pacientes, com diminuição da mortalidade por infecção e comorbidades e aumento por eventos cardiovasculares. A elasticidade arterial, principalmente dos pequenos vasos, tem sido investigada como alteração precoce de evento cardiovascular. Objetivo: Avaliar a relação entre elasticidade arterial e outros indicadores de risco cardiovascular como fatores demográficos e socioeconômicos, hábitos de vida, estado nutricional e marcadores inflamatórios. Métodos: Foram selecionados aleatoriamente 132 indivíduos voluntários em tratamento regular com antirretrovirais em ambulatório especializado em HIV/aids, com idade entre 19 e 59 de ambos os sexos. A elasticidade arterial dos grandes vasos (LAEI) e pequenos vasos (SAEI) foi investigada pelo equipamento HDI/ PulseWaveTM CR-2000 Cardio Vascular Profiling System®. Foram determinados colesterol total e frações, triglicérides, proteína C-reativa, fibrinogênio, medidas antropométricas e de avaliação de composição corporal, fumo, consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, uso de drogas, prática de atividade física, além de avaliação de fatores demográficos e socioeconômicos e imunológicos (carga viral, T-CD4, T-CD8). Para investigar a associação entre LAEI e SAEI e outros fatores de risco cardiovascular utilizou-se análise de regressão linear múltipla. Resultados: Em relação à elasticidade dos grandes e pequenos vasos, 71,97 por cento e 32,58 por cento , respectivamente, dos participantes foram classificados com elasticidade normal. Observou-se associação positiva entre LAEI e peso (p<0,001) e associações negativas entre LAEI e prega cutânea subescapular (p<0,001) e linfócitos T-CD4 (p<0,02). Verificou-se associação negativa de LAEI com sexo (p<0,02), mostrando que o sexo feminino está relacionado com menor elasticidade. Houve associação positiva entre SAEI e peso (p<0,001) e associações negativas entre SAEI e prega cutânea subescapular (p<0,001), idade (p<0,01) e linfócitos totais (p<0.01). Conclusão: As alterações de elasticidade arterial em pacientes HIV/aids apresentaram relação com outros fatores de risco cardiovascular. SAEI mostrou-se diminuído na maioria dos participantes, sendo uma alteração que pode identificar a disfunção endotelial antes que a doença se torne clinicamente aparente. A monitoração constante da elasticidade arterial através de método não invasivo pode se tornar uma importante ferramenta na predição e prevenção de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes HIV/aids / Introduction: There is a growing interest in identifying markers of risk for cardiovascular events in patients with HIV / AIDS. Currently there is a change in the epidemiological profile of patients with reduced mortality from infections and comorbidities and increased cardiovascular events. The arterial elasticity, mainly of small vessels, has been investigated as early alteration of cardiovascular events. Objective: To evaluate the relationship between arterial elasticity and other cardiovascular risk factors such as demographic and socioeconomic factors, lifestyle habits, nutritional status and inflammatory markers. Methods: We randomly selected 132 individuals volunteers, ages between 19 and 59, of both sexes, regularly treated with antiretrovirals in specialized clinics on HIV / AIDS. Arterial elasticity of the large (LAEI) and small (SAEI) vessels were investigated by the equipment HDI/ PulseWaveTM CR-2000 Cardio Vascular Profiling System®. We determined total cholesterol, HDL, triglycerides, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and anthropometric assessment of body composition, smoking, alcohol consumption, drug use, physical activity, and evaluation of demographic, socio-economic and immunological (viral load, T-CD4, T-CD8) factors. The association between LAEI and SAEI and other cardiovascular risk factors were assessed by multiple linear regression. Results: Regarding the elasticity of large and small vessels, 71.97 per cent and 32.58 per cent , respectively, of the participants were classified as having normal elasticity. We observed a positive association between LAEI and weight (p <0.001) and negative associations between LAEI and subscapular skinfold (p <0.001) and CD4 counts (p <0.02). There was a negative association of LAEI with gender (p <0.02), showing that female gender is associated with lower elasticity. There was a positive association between SAEI and weight (p <0.001) and negative associations between SAEI and subscapular skinfold (p <0.001), age (p <0.01) and total lymphocytes (p <0.01). Conclusion: Changes in arterial elasticity in patients with HIV / AIDS correlate with other cardiovascular risk factors. SAEI was altered in most participants, a change that can identify endothelial dysfunction before the disease becomes clinically apparent. The constant monitoring of arterial elasticity through noninvasive method may become an important tool in the prediction and prevention of cardiovascular events in HIV / aids patients

As mudanças nos usos da terra no Brasil têm sido muito discutidas atualmente, principalmente por causar desmatamento, degradação do solo, redução da biodiversidade e aumento da emissão de gases de efeito estufa, influenciando nas mudanças climáticas. Entretanto, a atividade agropecuária é importante para a economia brasileira por ser grande geradora de emprego e renda. Dessa forma, é necessário que o governo brasileiro, por meio de políticas agrícolas e ambientais, consiga regular a interação entre o meio ambiente e a produção agrícola de modo a gerar os maiores benefícios possíveis para a sociedade tanto do ponto de vista econômico quanto do ambiental. Para contribuir nessa discussão esse trabalho é composto por três artigos. O primeiro discutiu a evolução recente das políticas e instrumentos de políticas públicas que atuam diretamente nos usos das terras agrícolas privadas: o Código Florestal Brasileiro, o Importo Territorial Rural além de políticas públicas mais recentes de pagamentos por serviços ambientais. Concluiuse que a pouca fiscalização prejudica a efetividade das políticas e, consequentemente, não induz ao comportamento esperado dos produtores. Entretanto, as políticas de pagamentos por serviços ambientais e a criação da cota de reserva ambiental tem grande potencial de influenciar os produtores em direção a atitudes mais responsáveis ambientalmente. O segundo artigo discutiu as mudanças no uso do solo e a evolução da produção agrícola abordando o Brasil e cada um dos biomas brasileiros separadamente. Observou-se que as lavouras tem se expandido sobre as áreas de pastagens e florestas. Assim, é necessário aumentar a fiscalização e controle das atividades agrícolas de modo a direcionar a pressão para as áreas de pastagens, estimulando a intensificação da bovinocultura. Além disso, é necessário o desenvolvimento de alternativas específicas para a região da caatinga, visando melhorar a produção agrícola desse bioma. O terceiro e último artigo estudou os principais determinantes do uso do solo no Brasil e nos biomas. Identificou-se grande influência da mecanização em todos os usos de solo e, para o caso da cana-de-açúcar, da presença de usinas no município. Ainda, no modelo para o Brasil, as dummies de biomas e as variáveis de altitude, precipitação e temperatura apresentaram influencia significativa. Ainda, as elasticidades área preço calculadas identificaram pouca influência dos preços sobre as áreas plantadas, principalmente relacionados às áreas de pastagens e florestas. Concluiu-se que os resultados do modelo estimado podem não refletir adequadamente as pressões para as alterações nos usos da terra e diversas melhorias são sugeridas. Finalmente, conclui-se que é necessária uma abordagem interdisciplinar para compreender e abordar adequadamente as mudanças do uso do solo no Brasil. / Changes in the land use in Brazil have been much discussed today, mainly for causing deforestation, soil degradation, decrease of biodiversity and increased emission of greenhouse gases, influencing the climate change. The agricultural activity, however, is important for the Brazilian economy as it is a great generator of employment and income. Thus, it is necessary that the Brazilian government, through agricultural and environmental policies, gets to regulate the interaction between the environment and agricultural production in order to generate the greatest possible benefits to society not only from the economic but also from the environmental point of view. This work consists of three articles to contribute to this discussion. The first discussed the recent development of the public policies and policy instruments that act directly on the uses of private agricultural land: the Brazilian Forestry Code, the Rural Land Tax besides the latest public policies on payments for environmental services. It was concluded that little oversight undermines the effectiveness of policies and therefore does not lead to the expected behavior of producers. However, the policies of payments for environmental services and the creation of environmental reserve quota has great potential to influence attitudes towards producing more environmental responsibility. The second article discussed the changes in land use and the development of agricultural production in Brazil and each of the Brazilian biomes separately. It was observed that crops have expanded over the grazing areas and forests. Thus, it is necessary to increase the supervision and control of agricultural activities in order to direct the pressure to grazing areas, encouraging intensification of livestock production. Moreover, it is necessary to develop specific alternatives to the caatinga region, to improve agricultural production in this biome. The third and final article studied the main determinants of land use in Brazil and its biomes. A major influence of mechanization was identified in all land use and, for the sugar cane, the presence of industrial plants in the county also influenced its area. Still, in the model for Brazil, the dummies of biomes and the variables of altitude, rainfall and temperature had significant influence. Still, the area price elasticities calculated identified little influence of the prices on the areas planted, mainly related to grazing areas and forests. It was concluded that the results of the estimated model may not accurately reflect the pressures for changes in land uses and several improvements are suggested. Finally, it is concluded that an interdisciplinary approach is required to understand and properly deal with the changes of land use in Brazil.

A sensibilidade eletromecânica dos transdutores de eletretos poliméricos resulta em muitas aplicações na engenharia, que motivaram a produção industrial de um filme não homogêneo e eletricamente carregado, denominado filme eletromecânico ou EMFi (ElectroMechanical Film). Um dispositivo alternativo a este EMFi, produzido em nosso laboratório, foi o resultado de uma bolha de ar homogênea termoformada, unida por dois filmes de teflon FEP. Este dispositivo possui uma estrutura similar ao EMFi, mas permite cavidades homogêneas a serem predefinidas e distribuídas no momento em que o dispositivo é produzido, diferindo das células no EMFi com tamanhos diversos e dispersas no interior do filme industrial. A possibilidade de controlar a geometria das bolhas de ar tornou possível o desenvolvimento de um modelo, empregado como uma ferramenta de projeto. A resposta eletromecânica deste transdutor foi modelada e então apresentada neste trabalho. Este modelo analítico avalia o desempenho destes transdutores com somente uma bolha termoformada, para efeitos de simplificação, baseado em capacitores em série, em função da deformação mecânica e da carga elétrica retida no polímero. São representados dinamicamente com parâmetros elétricos e mecânicos, definidos à medida que operam como sensores ou atuadores, com respeito ao limites impostos pela aplicação especificada. O gráfico da resposta em freqüência mostra a freqüência de ressonância e a largura da faixa para meia-amplitude que determina o coeficiente de amortecimento que não pode ser obtido diretamente do modelo analítico. Este gráfico também permite comparar a freqüência natural obtida graficamente com aquela calculada pelo modelo, tornando mais confiável o modelo desenvolvido para o transdutor. Finalmente, melhorias na instrumentação e em condições mais adequadas para os testes são sugeridas, bem como métodos alternativos para trabalhos futuros. / The electromechanical sensibility of polymeric electrets transducers yields many engineering applications which have motivated industrial production of a non-homogeneous and electrically charged film, the so-called electromechanical film (EMFi). An alternative device for this EMFi that has been produced in our laboratory was a homogeneous thermo-formed air bubbles bonded with two teflon FEP films. This device has a structure similar to the EMFi, but allows the homogeneous voids to be pre-defined and distributed at the moment the device is produced, differing the EMFi voids with diverse sizes and dispersed into the industrial film. The possibility to control the air bubbles geometry makes possible the development of a model to be used as a design tool. The electromechanical response of this transducer has been modeled and is presented in this work. Such analytical model evaluates the transducers performance using just a single thermo-formed bubble for simplification purposes, based on series capacitors, which are function of the mechanical deformation and electrical charge trapped in the polymer. They are represented dynamically, with electrical and mechanical parameters being defined as they work as sensors or actuators, regarding the limits imposed by the specified application. A frequency response plot shows the resonance frequency and the bandwidth for the half amplitude, which determines the damper coefficient that cannot be obtained directly from the analytical model. This plot also allows comparison of the natural frequency obtained graphically with the calculated one using the model, making more reliable the transducer model developed. Finally, instrumentation improvements and more suitable test conditions are suggested, as well as alternative methods for future works.

O escopo do trabalho é estudar o problema da torção uniforme em barras de seção maciça e resolvê-lo analiticamente para obter o momento de inércia à torção da seção transversal e os deslocamentos ao longo de toda a barra. Este trabalho foi desenvolvido no contexto da Teoria da Elasticidade, utilizando o método semi-inverso para determinar as equações de Saint-Venant para a torção uniforme. As seções em forma de elipse e triângulo eqüilátero foram resolvidas utilizando a função de tensão de Prandtl, a função empenamento e a sua conjugada harmônica. A seção retangular foi resolvida utilizando as funções empenamento e de Prandtl desenvolvidas em séries infinitas. Foi desenvolvida uma formulação matricial utilizando o Método de Galerkin para resolver problemas que não possuem solução fechada. / The main purpose of this essay is to present the issue of the uniform torsion in solid section bars and to solve it analytically to achieve the moment of inertia to the torsion of the transversal section and the displacements throughout the whole bar. This essay was developed in the Elasticity Theory context, using the semi-inverse method to determine the Saint-Venant equations to the uniform torsion. The sections in ellipse and equilateral triangle were solved using the Prandtl stress function, the warping function and its harmonic conjugate. The rectangular section was solved using the warping and the Prandtl functions developed in infinite series. A formulation based on matrixes was developed using the Galerkin method to solve problems that do not have closed solution.