Os sistemas de proteção dos elementos da rede elétrica desempenham um papel de fundamental importância na segurança e confiabilidade dos sistemas de potência. A não atuação ou a atuação incorreta dos relés de proteção durante uma falta localizada em um componente da rede pode transformar-se em um evento sistêmico de grandes proporções (blecaute). Esses eventos trazem riscos e elevados prejuízos econômicos à sociedade. A proteção dos geradores síncronos, apesar do alto custo e complexidade deste tipo de equipamento, não recebe a mesma atenção na literatura que a dedicada à proteção de outros elementos da rede, como, por exemplo, a das linhas de transmissão. Isso decorre do menor número de geradores existentes na rede e também da ideia que as faltas neste tipo de equipamento são menos frequentes. Este trabalho aborda os principais aspectos envolvidos com o projeto de um sistema de proteção para geradores síncronos de grande porte. Incialmente, discutese os principais conceitos associados com os geradores, de interesse para a tarefa de proteção. Particular atenção é dedicada às formas de aterramento e aos critérios adotados para projeto do resistor de aterramento utilizado nesse equipamento. Em seguida, apresentam-se as principais funções de proteção aplicáveis aos geradores, particularmente aquelas voltadas para a detecção de faltas nos enrolamentos do estator. Discute-se também os critérios de ajustes dos parâmetros dessas funções. Descreve-se o uso de uma plataforma laboratorial, baseada em simulador de tempo real (RTDS), para ensaio e análise do sistema de proteção visando validar seu correto desempenho frente às possíveis condições operativas que podem ser encontradas em campo. Finalmente, utilizando os conceitos desenvolvidos ao longo do trabalho, desenvolve-se um estudo de caso, onde é realizado o projeto e implementação do sistema de proteção dos geradores de uma usina hidrelétrica hipotética. Para avaliar e analisar o desempenho do sistema de proteção dessa rede exemplo, parametrizou-se o IED G60 (GE) e realizou-se inúmeras simulações na plataforma de testes proposta. / Protection systems play a critical role in the safety and reliability of electric power systems. The non-operation or wrong operation of protective relays during a fault in a network element can evolve to a systemic event in large scale (blackout). These events bring risks and high economic losses to society. Despite the high cost and complexity, the protection of synchronous generators has not received much attention in the literature devoted to protection of other network elements, such as transmission lines. This stems from the smaller number of generators in the network and also the idea that the faults in this type of equipment are less frequent. This research discusses the main aspects involved in the design of a protection system for large synchronous generators. Initially, it discusses the key concepts of interest to the generation protection. Particular attention is given to grounding techniques and the criteria adopted for the design of grounding resistors used in those equipment. Then the main protection functions applicable to generators are presented, particularly those related to fault detection in the stator windings. The criteria for setting the parameters of these functions are also discussed. After that, the use of a laboratory shelf, based on Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) for testing and analysis of the protection system, is described in order to validate the correct performance in face of possible operating conditions in the field. Finally, a study case is developed using the concepts developed throughout the research. Then, the design and implementation of the protection system of generators of a hypothetical hydroelectric plant are carried out. To evaluate and analyze the performance of this example network protection system, parameterized up IED G60 (GE) and held numerous simulations in the proposed test platform.

Os sistemas de proteção dos elementos da rede elétrica desempenham um papel de fundamental importância na segurança e confiabilidade dos sistemas de potência. A não atuação ou a atuação incorreta dos relés de proteção durante uma falta localizada em um componente da rede pode transformar-se em um evento sistêmico de grandes proporções (blecaute). Esses eventos trazem riscos e elevados prejuízos econômicos à sociedade. A proteção dos geradores síncronos, apesar do alto custo e complexidade deste tipo de equipamento, não recebe a mesma atenção na literatura que a dedicada à proteção de outros elementos da rede, como, por exemplo, a das linhas de transmissão. Isso decorre do menor número de geradores existentes na rede e também da ideia que as faltas neste tipo de equipamento são menos frequentes. Este trabalho aborda os principais aspectos envolvidos com o projeto de um sistema de proteção para geradores síncronos de grande porte. Incialmente, discutese os principais conceitos associados com os geradores, de interesse para a tarefa de proteção. Particular atenção é dedicada às formas de aterramento e aos critérios adotados para projeto do resistor de aterramento utilizado nesse equipamento. Em seguida, apresentam-se as principais funções de proteção aplicáveis aos geradores, particularmente aquelas voltadas para a detecção de faltas nos enrolamentos do estator. Discute-se também os critérios de ajustes dos parâmetros dessas funções. Descreve-se o uso de uma plataforma laboratorial, baseada em simulador de tempo real (RTDS), para ensaio e análise do sistema de proteção visando validar seu correto desempenho frente às possíveis condições operativas que podem ser encontradas em campo. Finalmente, utilizando os conceitos desenvolvidos ao longo do trabalho, desenvolve-se um estudo de caso, onde é realizado o projeto e implementação do sistema de proteção dos geradores de uma usina hidrelétrica hipotética. Para avaliar e analisar o desempenho do sistema de proteção dessa rede exemplo, parametrizou-se o IED G60 (GE) e realizou-se inúmeras simulações na plataforma de testes proposta. / Protection systems play a critical role in the safety and reliability of electric power systems. The non-operation or wrong operation of protective relays during a fault in a network element can evolve to a systemic event in large scale (blackout). These events bring risks and high economic losses to society. Despite the high cost and complexity, the protection of synchronous generators has not received much attention in the literature devoted to protection of other network elements, such as transmission lines. This stems from the smaller number of generators in the network and also the idea that the faults in this type of equipment are less frequent. This research discusses the main aspects involved in the design of a protection system for large synchronous generators. Initially, it discusses the key concepts of interest to the generation protection. Particular attention is given to grounding techniques and the criteria adopted for the design of grounding resistors used in those equipment. Then the main protection functions applicable to generators are presented, particularly those related to fault detection in the stator windings. The criteria for setting the parameters of these functions are also discussed. After that, the use of a laboratory shelf, based on Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) for testing and analysis of the protection system, is described in order to validate the correct performance in face of possible operating conditions in the field. Finally, a study case is developed using the concepts developed throughout the research. Then, the design and implementation of the protection system of generators of a hypothetical hydroelectric plant are carried out. To evaluate and analyze the performance of this example network protection system, parameterized up IED G60 (GE) and held numerous simulations in the proposed test platform.

Dissertation (DTech(Electrical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012 / The confluence of the limited resources of fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil and natural gas), environmental degradations leading to climate change, security of supplies and fossil fuels high costs have demanded a tremendous efforts on humanity to seek for a sustainable and unlimited natural energy sources. Amongst these renewable energy sources stands out solar energy because of its ubiquitousness. Solar energy is converted to DC electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic (PV) power systems installed in commercial and industrial buildings are a good example of distributed power generation. Here the energy consumption and production match and thus electricity taken from the grid during daytime peak hours can be reduced. This is beneficial as the transmission losses in the grid are avoided and also transmission need is reduced. The cost effectiveness of a solar energy system has hindered its wide adoption and deployment in terms of the initial capital cost even though it has a zero energy cost and very minimal operating and maintenance costs. Different governments have instituted many financial incentives for fast adoption of PV systems for both residential and commercial applications. However, all these incentives are not sustainable in the longer term forecast. For PV system to attain grid parity requires more than unsustainable approach of many governments providing time limited subsidies. The technical solution to the problem is to reduce the overall system cost through technical innovations. One such method is the adoption of transformerless inverter technology as the grid interface system. Transformerless inverter topology provides galvanic isolation through innovative inverter topology and switching strategies that eliminates problems created by not employing the service of transformer.

As características estruturais do setor elétrico brasileiro são semelhantes às de outros setores produtivos clássicos. O segmento geração de energia elétrica ocupa um papel de destaque não só no aspecto estrutural, mas também na sua participação dentro da tarifa de fornecimento de energia elétrica, com participação da ordem de 30%. As questões comerciais que deveriam estar presentes de forma intensa durante todo o ciclo de vida do SEB, somente nas duas últimas décadas ganharam destaque e lhe foi dada a devida importância. Este trabalho procurou identificar como se processou as relações negociais, em particular as de cunho comercial, entre as empresas, supridoras e supridas, integrantes do setor elétrico brasileiro - SEB. O estudo foi segmentado em três períodos: 1990 a 1996 - \"Concepção da privatização\", 1997 a 2002 - \"Execução Operacional do Programa de Privatização\" e 2003 a 2006 - \"Modelo da Reestruturação\". Foram analisados os conceitos referentes a energia assegurada, mecanismo de realocação de energia e contratos iniciais.O texto expõe também a evolução histórica do SEB desde o final do século XIX, durante todo o século XX, e observou as externalidades que contribuíram para o posicionamento atual, como por exemplo, crise do México, Consenso de Washington e Racionamento de Energia Elétrica - 2001. Finalmente são apresentados os conceitos e o processo de cálculo do custo marginal de operação - CMO e do preço da liquidação das diferenças - PLD e do atual processo de comercialização de energia que compreende os ambientes de contratação regulada, com destaque para os leilões de energia, e o ambiente de contratação livre. / The characteristics of the Brazilian Electrical Sector, BES, are similar to those of other classic productive sectors. The electrical power generation segment plays an important role not only in the structural aspect, but also in the share of about 30% of the user\'s end tariff. The commercial issues, that should have been strongly emphasized in all BES life cycle, have only in the two last decades received the attention it deserved. This work aimed at identifying how business relations developed, particularly the commercial issues of the companies belonging to the BES system; that is, suppliers and supplied components of the said system. This project was divided into three parts: 1990 to 1996 - \"Conception of privatization\", 1997 to 2002 - \"Operational execution of privatization programs\" and 2003 to 2006 - \"Restructuring model\". Concepts related to assured power supply, electricity reallocation mechanism and initial contracts were analyzed. The text still describes BES historical evolution from the end of the nineteenth century through the twentieth century. The prevailing external scenarios that contributed to the present situation, e.g., Mexico Crises, Washington Consensus and 2001 Electricity Supply Restriction were also taken into account. Due consideration has also been given to: marginal operational cost calculation, settlement price for the differences (spot prices) and the existing process of power commercializing, which encompasses free and regulated contracting ambience. In the latter power auction plays the dominant role.

No description available.

[pt] Uma das principais preocupações mundiais atualmente está relacionada às questões ambientais. Essa preocupação é considerada na seleção de projetos de energia e, como resultado, a geração de energia elétrica a partir de fontes renováveis tem experimentado um forte crescimento em todo o mundo, incluindo o Brasil. Em relação às fontes de energia hidrelétrica, as Pequenas Centrais Hidrelétricas (PCHs) são uma alternativa para reduzir o impacto ambiental. Esses projetos produzem entre 5 e 30 megawatts (MW) e sua instalação tem um baixo custo e respeito ao meio ambiente, principalmente por não existir necessidade de reservatórios de regulação, o que não é o caso de grandes usinas hidrelétricas. Nos últimos anos, o número de PCHs tem aumentado bastante, como consequência dos incentivos para geração de eletricidade a partir de fontes renováveis. Como a geração de energia hidrelétrica é fortemente influenciada por regimes hidrológicos, especialmente no caso de usinas a fio d água como as PCHs, melhorar a assertividade das previsões de geração de energia elétrica de maneira estocástica torna-se altamente importante para as distribuidoras. Esta dissertação tem como principal objetivo apresentar o desempenho de um grupo de modelos de previsão aplicados para PCHs de uma distribuidora real de energia elétrica. Para isso foram utilizadas diferentes abordagens, incluindo dados de vazão de usinas hidrelétricas vizinhas como variável explicativa em modelos causais, assim como também modelos univariados. / [en] One of the main world concerns nowadays is related to the environment issues. Such concern is considered in the selection of energy projects and, as a result of that, the generation of electricity from renewable sources has experienced a sharp growth all over the world, Brazil included. Concerning hydropower sources, Small Hydropower Plants (SHPs) are an alternative to reduce environmental impact. These projects produce between 5 and 30 megawatts (MW) and its installation has a low cost and respect to the environment, mainly because there is no need of regulation reservoirs, which is not the case in bigger hydroelectric plants. In recent years the number of SHPs is increasing in a great deal, as a consequence of the incentives to generate electricity from renewable sources. Since hydro power generation is heavily influenced by hydrological regimes, especially in the case of run-of-river plants, as SHPs, improving the assertiveness of electric power generation forecasts in a stochastic way becomes highly important for distributing utilities. This master dissertation has as main objective to present the performance of an arrange of forecasting models applied to SHPs of a real distributing utility. It was used different approaches, including inflow data from neighboring hydro plants as exogenous variable, in causal models and also univariate models.

The performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) at the cell and system levels is studied using computer simulation. At the cell level, a new model combining the cell micro and macro models is developed. Using this model, the microstructural variables of porous composite electrodes can be linked to the cell performance. In this approach, the electrochemical performance of porous composite electrodes is predicted using a micro-model. In the micro-model, the random-packing sphere method is used to estimate the microstructural properties of porous composite electrodes from the independent microstructural variables. These variables are the electrode porosity, thickness, particle size ratio, and size and volume fraction of electron-conducting particles. Then, the complex interdependency among the multi-component mass transport, electron and ion transports, and the electrochemical and chemical reactions in the microstructure of electrodes is taken into account to predict the electrochemical performance of electrodes. The temperature distribution in the solid structure of the cell and the temperature and species partial pressure distributions in the bulk fuel and air streams are predicted using the cell macro-model. In the macro-model, the energy transport is considered for the cell solid structure and the mass and energy transports are considered for the fuel and air streams. To demonstrate the application of the cell level model developed, entitled the combined micro- and micro-model, several anode-supported co-flow planar cells with a range of microstructures of porous composite electrodes are simulated. The mean total polarization resistance, the mean total power density, and the temperature distribution in the cells are predicted. The results of this study reveal that there is an optimum value for most of the microstructural variables of the electrodes at which the mean total polarization resistance of the cell is minimized. There is also an optimum value for most of the microstructural variables of the electrodes at which the mean total power density of the cell is maximized. The microstructure of porous composite electrodes also plays a significant role in the mean temperature, the temperature difference between the hottest and coldest spots, and the maximum temperature gradient in the solid structure of the cell. Overall, using the combined micro- and micro-model, an appropriate microstructure for porous composite electrodes to enhance the cell performance can be designed. At the system level, the full load operation of two SOFC systems is studied. To model these systems, the basic cell model is used for SOFCs at the cell level, the repeated-cell stack model is used for SOFCs at the stack level, and the thermodynamic model is used for the balance of plant components of the system. In addition to these models, a carbon deposition model based on the thermodynamic equilibrium assumption is employed. For the system level model, the first SOFC system considered is a combined heat and power (CHP) system that operates with biogas fuel. The performance of this system at three different configurations is evaluated. These configurations are different in the fuel processing method to prevent carbon deposition on the anode catalyst. The fuel processing methods considered in these configurations are the anode gas recirculation (AGR), steam reforming (SR), and partial oxidation reformer (POX) methods. The application of this system is studied for operation in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and in single-family detached dwellings. The evaluation of this system for operation in a WWTP indicates that if the entire biogas produced in the WWTP is used in the system with AGR or SR fuel processors, the electric power and heat required to operate the plant can be completely supplied and the extra electric power generated can be sold to the electrical grid. The evaluation of this system for operation in single-family detached dwellings indicates that, depending on the size, location, and building type and design, this system with all configurations studied is suitable to provide the domestic hot water and electric power demands. The second SOFC system is a novel portable electric power generation system that operates with liquid ammonia fuel. Size, simplicity, and high electrical efficiency are the main advantages of this environmentally friendly system. Using a sensitivity analysis, the effects of the cell voltage at several fuel utilization ratios on the number of cells required for the SOFC stack, system efficiency and voltage, and excess air required for thermal management of the SOFC stack are studied.

The performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) at the cell and system levels is studied using computer simulation. At the cell level, a new model combining the cell micro and macro models is developed. Using this model, the microstructural variables of porous composite electrodes can be linked to the cell performance. In this approach, the electrochemical performance of porous composite electrodes is predicted using a micro-model. In the micro-model, the random-packing sphere method is used to estimate the microstructural properties of porous composite electrodes from the independent microstructural variables. These variables are the electrode porosity, thickness, particle size ratio, and size and volume fraction of electron-conducting particles. Then, the complex interdependency among the multi-component mass transport, electron and ion transports, and the electrochemical and chemical reactions in the microstructure of electrodes is taken into account to predict the electrochemical performance of electrodes. The temperature distribution in the solid structure of the cell and the temperature and species partial pressure distributions in the bulk fuel and air streams are predicted using the cell macro-model. In the macro-model, the energy transport is considered for the cell solid structure and the mass and energy transports are considered for the fuel and air streams. To demonstrate the application of the cell level model developed, entitled the combined micro- and micro-model, several anode-supported co-flow planar cells with a range of microstructures of porous composite electrodes are simulated. The mean total polarization resistance, the mean total power density, and the temperature distribution in the cells are predicted. The results of this study reveal that there is an optimum value for most of the microstructural variables of the electrodes at which the mean total polarization resistance of the cell is minimized. There is also an optimum value for most of the microstructural variables of the electrodes at which the mean total power density of the cell is maximized. The microstructure of porous composite electrodes also plays a significant role in the mean temperature, the temperature difference between the hottest and coldest spots, and the maximum temperature gradient in the solid structure of the cell. Overall, using the combined micro- and micro-model, an appropriate microstructure for porous composite electrodes to enhance the cell performance can be designed. At the system level, the full load operation of two SOFC systems is studied. To model these systems, the basic cell model is used for SOFCs at the cell level, the repeated-cell stack model is used for SOFCs at the stack level, and the thermodynamic model is used for the balance of plant components of the system. In addition to these models, a carbon deposition model based on the thermodynamic equilibrium assumption is employed. For the system level model, the first SOFC system considered is a combined heat and power (CHP) system that operates with biogas fuel. The performance of this system at three different configurations is evaluated. These configurations are different in the fuel processing method to prevent carbon deposition on the anode catalyst. The fuel processing methods considered in these configurations are the anode gas recirculation (AGR), steam reforming (SR), and partial oxidation reformer (POX) methods. The application of this system is studied for operation in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and in single-family detached dwellings. The evaluation of this system for operation in a WWTP indicates that if the entire biogas produced in the WWTP is used in the system with AGR or SR fuel processors, the electric power and heat required to operate the plant can be completely supplied and the extra electric power generated can be sold to the electrical grid. The evaluation of this system for operation in single-family detached dwellings indicates that, depending on the size, location, and building type and design, this system with all configurations studied is suitable to provide the domestic hot water and electric power demands. The second SOFC system is a novel portable electric power generation system that operates with liquid ammonia fuel. Size, simplicity, and high electrical efficiency are the main advantages of this environmentally friendly system. Using a sensitivity analysis, the effects of the cell voltage at several fuel utilization ratios on the number of cells required for the SOFC stack, system efficiency and voltage, and excess air required for thermal management of the SOFC stack are studied.

La tesis estudia la evolución del parque de generación de energía eléctrica durante el franquismo (1940-1975). En este período comenzó la formación de un sistema unificado de explotación, y durante su desarrollo se pasó de 1.731Mw a 25.467Mw. El sistema que se denominó “autorregulación”, permitió la coexistencia de las empresas eléctricas privadas, agrupadas alrededor de UNESA y el INI en su vertiente eléctrica. Sin embargo, las decisiones y la política eléctrica, y más tarde energética, estuvo directamente influida por el gobierno. Se analiza la importancia de las fuentes (hidráulica, carbón, fuel oil, gas natura, nuclear) de energía primaria en la generación de energía eléctrica. Asimismo, se estudia, aunque no de manera exhaustiva el impacto del medio ambiente y sus consecuencias y efectos a largo plazo. Todo ello se desarrolla en el contexto histórico pertinente bajo una vertiente técnico-económica. / The thesis studies the evolution of the power generation system of electricity, during the Franco’s Regime (1940-1975). In this period, it began the construction of a unified system of exploitation, where the power installed was moved from 1.731Mw to 25.467Mw. The system was called "self regulation", allowing the coexistence of private electric companies, grouped around UNESA and the INI in its electrical aspect. However, the decisions and the power policy, and later on the energy, was directly influenced by the government. It discusses the importance of the primary energy sources (hydro, coal, fuel oil, natural gas, nuclear) in electric power generation. However, it is not intended to illustrate a comprenhensive explanation of the environmental impact and its consequences and effects long term. To sum up, all this takes place in the relevant historical context in a technical and economical perspective.