abstract: There is growing concern over the future availability of water for electricity generation. Because of a rapidly growing population coupled with an arid climate, the Western United States faces a particularly acute water/energy challenge, as installation of new electricity capacity is expected to be required in the areas with the most limited water availability. Electricity trading is anticipated to be an important strategy for avoiding further local water stress, especially during drought and in the areas with the most rapidly growing populations. Transfers of electricity imply transfers of "virtual water" - water required for the production of a product. Yet, as a result of sizable demand growth, there may not be excess capacity in the system to support trade as an adaptive response to long lasting drought. As the grid inevitably expands capacity due to higher demand, or adapts to anticipated climate change, capacity additions should be selected and sited to increase system resilience to drought. This paper explores the tradeoff between virtual water and local water/energy infrastructure development for the purpose of enhancing the Western US power grid's resilience to drought. A simple linear model is developed that estimates the economically optimal configuration of the Western US power grid given water constraints. The model indicates that natural gas combined cycle power plants combined with increased interstate trade in power and virtual water provide the greatest opportunity for cost effective and water efficient grid expansion. Such expansion, as well as drought conditions, may shift and increase virtual water trade patterns, as states with ample water resources and a competitive advantage in developing power sources become net exporters, and states with limited water or higher costs become importers. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering 2013

Då ett eventuellt förbud av nya kreosotimpregnerade stolpar kan bli en verklighet inom EU år 2018 letar Vattenfall efter andra alternativ. Stål, betong, limträ och komposit anses idag vara de mest konkurrenskraftiga alternativen och kommer att undersökas i denna rapport. Grundläggande tekniska egenskaper, miljöutsläpp och kostnader för de olika stolptyperna kommer att analyseras i rapporten och jämföras mot den kreosotimpregnerade furustolpen. Rapporten beskriver hur de olika stolpalternativen lämpar sig i Vattenfalls elnät i Sverige. P.g.a. sekretesskäl kommer exakta prisuppgifter inte att redovisas. Prisuppgifterna för inköp och återvinning kommer istället att redovisas som en kvot mellan den alternativa stolpen dividerat kreosotstolpen. Inte heller kommer slipers och andra fundament att behandlas i rapporten. Metoden som används bygger på att först presentera relevant teori kring vardera stolptyp. Även impregneringsprocessen, besiktningsmetoder och nedbrytning/återvinning av stolpar redogörs i rapporten. Den miljömässiga analysen bygger på IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutets LCA-analys där kreosotstolpen jämförs med andra stolptyper. Det visar sig dock att kreosotstolpen är den stolptyp som bidrar till minst miljöutsläpp om man ser till hela dess livscykel. Slutsatsen är att kompositstolpen visar sig vara ett av de mest konkurrenskraftiga alternativen då den ses som ett miljövänligt alternativ och dess vikt gör den lätt att hantera. Den är heller inte impregnerad och kan därför monteras överallt utan några rättsliga restriktioner. Denna stolptyp är också väldigt aktuell då den i dagsläget är väl etablerad på marknaden. / Because of a possible ban of creosote impregnated poles can become a real scenario within the EU the year 2018 Vattenfall are searching for other alternatives. Steel, concrete, laminated wood and composite are considered the most competitive alternatives today and are being investigated in this report. Basic technical specifications, impacts on the environment and costs of the different pole types are being analyzed in the report and compared to the creosote impregnated pine pole. This report will describe how well the alternative pole types are suited in Vattenfalls electrical grid in Sweden. Due to confidentiality reasons the exact amount of costs and expenses will not be included in the report. The price of purchase and recycling will instead be presented as a quota between the alternative pole divided by the creosote pole. Neither will sleepers nor other pole foundations be included in this report. The method that is being used is to first present relevant theory about the mentioned pole types. Also the impregnation process, survey and disintegration/recycling of poles will be explained. The environmental analysis are based on IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet's LCA where the creosote pole are compared to its alternatives. They conclude that it is the creosote pole that has the least impact on the environment if you look at the whole life-cycle. The conclusion is that the composite pole are shown to be one of the most competitive alternatives because it is considered to be environmental-friendly and its low weight makes it easy to work with. Also, it's not impregnated and can therefore be used everywhere without any legal restrictions. This pole type is also very relevant as it is already released on the market.

Ce projet étudie la réalisation d’un marché d’énergie éolienne en France. Les marchés d'énergie éolienne sont souvent désignés comme des «marchés politiques» : D'une part, l'énergie éolienne réduit les émissions de CO2 et retarde les effets de la production d'électricité sur le changement climatique. D'autre part, comme bien économique, l'énergie éolienne se dit souffrir «d’handicaps» technico-économiques (les coûts élevés, la production fluctuante et imprévisible, etc.). Par conséquent, en raison de sa performance comme bien économique, il est argumenté que la survie de l'énergie éolienne dans le marché est fondée sur différents instruments, dont certains que je qualifierai de «prothèses». Cette thèse s’interroge sur deux de ces prothèses : Le tarif d’achat et les Zones de Développement Eolien (ZDE) comme ils sont négociés et mis en pratique en France, ainsi que la manière dont ils affectent la réalisation des marchés de l'énergie. / This project studies the making of a market for wind power in France. Markets for wind power are often referred to as ‘political markets: On the one hand, wind power has the potential to reduce CO2-emissions and thus stall the effects of electricity generation on climate change; and on the other hand, as an economic good, wind power is said to suffer from (techno-economic) ‘disabilities', such as high costs, fluctuating and unpredictable generation, etc. Therefore, because of its performance as a good, it is argued that the survival of wind power in the market is premised on different instruments, some of which I will refer to as ‘prosthetic devices'. This thesis inquires into two such prosthetic devices: The feed-in tariff and the wind power development zones (ZDE) as they are negotiated and practiced in France, and also the ways in which they affect the making of markets for wind power. Theoretically, this dissertation mobilizes a constructivist approach according to which markets are seen as socio-technical assemblages, stressing the heterogeneous and distributed character of their constituent elements. Furthermore, the approach allows questioning the deadlocked delineation between politics and economics, a delineation that appears to underlie the idea of the political market. Based on fieldwork in France, the core of this thesis is made up of two analyses; firstly, the definition of a feed-in tariff is empirically followed as a process of valuation in which value is seen as the outcome of irregular and costly activities, rather than the identification of an inherent value.To study how value, here in the form of a price, comes about in the case of wind power, five different empirical traces are followed with each one representing a distinct approach to valuation. These valuation proposals involve qualifying and disqualifying wind power, e.g., from CO2-reducing to CO2-emitting, and they span a range of controversies. The second analysis addresses the ZDE-device. It follows the device along two phases; namely, its conception and its emerging practice in a specific case, the territory of Pays de la Serre. The first phase is discussed as a politicization of wind power, a distinct framing of location in which the possibility for local opposition is enforced. The second phase, i.e. the practice of the device in Pays de la Serre, is better described as an economization of the landscape, a process of translating the territory according to one-dimensional layers. In their final presentation, these layers are accumulated and black-boxed, and the criteria for their construction disappear.

This bachelor thesis examines the part of the EU-project CoordiNet based on Vattenfall Distribution AB and their commitment in the project. The aim and purpose of CoordiNet are to find possible solutions on capacity shortage through coordination between customer -DSO -TSO achieving a more efficient usage of the electrical grid.  The report evaluates the outcomes of the implementation of the CoordiNet project, focusing on the demonstration in Uppsala. An investigation of the flexibility market used in CoordiNet is made with the aim to examine the impact on capacity shortage. Additionally the report looks into the profits of making flexibility calls and how accurate the load forecasting for the project has been and its impact on the result. All the calculations and evaluations are based on analyses from the available data sets. Statistical methods are used together with diagrams to make the evaluation possible.  The conclusion is that CoordiNet and its flexibility market in Uppsala has led to reduced subscription overruns, which in turn has an positive impact on both the capacity in the electrical grid and also costs regarding excess charges. The load forecasting model used in the project proved to be better and more stable than the previous model and it is neither markedly affected by temperature or energy prices. This CoordiNet demonstration is the first one in Uppsala and to a large extent it has been a test period. There will be further demonstrations in the future and this first demonstration is a great learning experience for upcoming projects.

The entire diploma thesis analyses causes, consequences and repercussions of an electricity grid network blackout and its impact to the respective consumers. Remarkable blackouts recorded since 1965 are briefly described and basic available information is considered. The grid standard fixing measures and electricity delivery priorities are characterized. The thesis also pays attention to entire Czech Republic grid availability and its blackout endurance as well as to its robustness within last several years. Indirect Fukushima event influence to the Czech Republic electricity system is mentioned. The main part of the thesis comprises of four big European grid blackouts causes and consequences, their comparison to each other and to the Dukovany nuclear power plant grid blackout drill scenario. The preventive and standard corrective measures against blackouts are pointed out.

Flera svenska storstadsregioner har börjat nå taket för nätkapacitet i elnäten, ett problem som även kallas kapacitetsbrist. Problemet med kapacitetsbrist grundar sig i de förändringar som sker för elproduktionen, med exempelvis en ökande grad av förnyelsebar, intermittent elproduktion, och förändringar i efterfrågan i och med samhällets ökande grad av elektrifiering. För att hantera och överkomma kapacitetsbrist har elnätsbolag traditionellt sett byggt ut elnätet för att därmed har möjlighet att leverera effekt under årets alla dagar, en metod som har långa ledtider och har höga investeringskostnader. Den accelererade problematiken kring kapacitetsbrist sätter ett förändringstryck på elsystemet och i synnerhet elnätsbolagen att hantera problemet. Ett alternativ till att hantera kapacitetsbrist är för elnätsbolag att upphandla flexibilitetstjänster. Det är en lösning som anses som resurseffektiv och samhällsekonomisk i förhållande till konventionell nätutbyggnad. Flexibilitet i elsystemet innebär aktörers medvetna förändring i elproduktion eller efterfrågan av effekt som avser att stabilisera elsystemet. Genom en flexibilitetsmarknad kan elnätsbolag ge aktörer incitament att erbjuda sin flexibilitet mot betalning och därmed hantera kapacitetsbrist när det behövs.  I det här examensarbetet har syftet varit att studera flexibilitetsmarknaders roll i att överkomma kapacitetsbrist i lokala elnät och vad konceptet innebär för möjligheter och utmaningar på aktörsnivå och övergripande marknadsnivå. Genom kvalitativa forskningsmetoder, semi-strukturerade intervjuer, litteratur- och dokumentstudier, har författarna kartlagt kunskapsläget om flexibilitetsmarknader och konceptets innebörd för enskilda aktörer. Examensarbetet presenterar även ett teoretiskt ramverk av ekonomisk teori som syftar till att ge större förståelse för marknadens etableringsprocess och vilka eventuella marknadsmisslyckanden som riskerar att ske. En förstudie har genomförts där två aktiva projekt, CoordiNet och Sthlmflex, av flexibilitetsmarknader i Sverige har studerats för att identifiera insikter om flexibilitetsmarknaders möjligheter och utmaningar. Vidare utfördes en semi-strukturerad intervjustudie med 15 olika företag i Göteborg, en region som ännu inte har en flexibilitetsmarknad, för att studera olika aktörers drivkrafter och hinder för att medverka på en flexibilitetsmarknad. Företagen var kategoriserade i fem olika segment; industrier, hamnindustrier, fastighetsbolag, elnätsbolag och aggregatorer. Resultatet från förstudien visar på att de existerande flexibilitetmarknaderna har varit viktiga för deltagande aktörer att lära sig förstå hur de bör arbeta med en flexibilitetsmarknad som en del av verksamheten. Det har visat sig existera ett antal utmaningar i projekten som exempelvis bristfällig kommunikation, avsaknad av automatiserade processer och låg likviditet på marknaderna. I intervjustudien kunde det urskiljas att de flesta industrier, hamnindustrier och fastighetsbolag har flexibilitetsresurser och potential för att medverka som leverantörer på en flexibilitetsmarknad. Hos samma segment identifierades dock hinder gällande bristen på teknisk utrustning för att kunna erbjuda flexibilitet och en osäkerhet kring ersättningsnivån som kan väntas från flexibilitetmarknaden för flexibilitetsleverantörer. Elnätsbolag ser flexibilitetsmarknader som ett bra alternativ till att hantera kapacitetsbrist och att potentialen är stor för framtiden. Aggregatorer tros ha en betydande roll på flexibilitetsmarknader och vara en möjliggörare för aktörer med mindre resurser och begränsad kunskap. Totalt var 12 av 15 tillfrågade företagen intresserade av att delta på en flexibilitets-marknad i Göteborg. Utifrån teori kan flexibilitetsmarknader ses som en innovativ marknad och att etableringsprocessen innebär olika marknadsstabiliserande aktioner. Flexibilitetsmarknader innebär även ett behov av innovativa affärsmodeller för marknadsaktörerna. Med hänsyn till hinder och utmaningar som identifierats hos flexibilitetsmarknaderna under examensarbetet existerar risker för eventuella marknadsmisslyckanden, orsakade av asymmetrisk information, transaktionskostnader, begränsad rationalitet och externaliteter. / Several Swedish metropolitan regions have begun facing issues regarding the capacity in the power grid, a problem that is also known as capacity shortage. The problem of capacity shortage is based on several changes within the power system, for example, an increasing degree of renewable, intermittent electricity production, and society's increasing degree of electrification. In order to manage capacity shortages, power grid companies have traditionally expanded the power grid to be able to deliver power during all hours of the year, a method that has long lead times and high investment costs. The accelerated problem of capacity shortages puts pressure for change in the power system, and in particular the power grid companies to deal with the problem. An alternative in managing capacity shortages is for power grid companies to purchase flexibility services. It is a solution that is referred to as a more sustainable, resource efficient and socio-economic in relation to conventional power grid expansion. Flexibility in the power system can be seen as changes in the electricity production or the demand for power that intends to stabilize the power system. In a flexibility market, power grid companies can give companies incentives to offer their flexibility against payment and thus handle capacity shortages when needed. The purpose of the thesis has been to study the role of flexibility markets in overcoming capacity shortages in local power grids, and the concept’s opportunities and challenges for different actors and from a market perspective. Through qualitative research methods, semi-structured interviews, literature- and document studies, the authors have mapped the state of knowledge about flexibility markets and the concept's meaning for the power system. The thesis also presents a theoretical framework of economic theory that aims to provide a greater understanding of the market's establishment process and what possible market failures that are likely to occur. A pre-study has been carried out where two projects, CoordiNet and Sthlmflex, of flexibility markets in Sweden have been studied to identify insights into the concept’s opportunities and challenges. Furthermore, a semi-structured interview study was conducted with 15 different companies in Gothenburg, a region that does not yet have a flexibility market, to study companies’ drivers and obstacles to participate in a flexibility market. The companies were categorized into five different segments: industries, port industries, real estate companies, power grid companies and aggregators. The results from the pre-study show that the existing flexibility markets have been important for participating players to understand how they should integrate a flexibility market as a part of their businesses. It has been shown that there are several challenges in the flexibility projects, such as inadequate communication, lack of automated processes and low liquidity on the markets. In the interview study, it could be discerned that most industries, port industries and real estate companies have flexibility resources and potential to participate as flexibility providers in a flexibility market. In the same segments, obstacles were identified regarding the lack of technical equipment to be able to offer flexibility and an uncertainty about the level of remuneration that can be expected from the flexibility market for flexibility providers. Power grid companies sees flexibility markets as a good alternative for managing capacity shortages and that the potential is great for the future. Aggregators are believed to play a significant role in flexibility markets and be an enabler for companies with smaller flexibility resources and limited knowledge. In total, 12 of the 15 companies surveyed were interested in participating in a flexibility market in Gothenburg. Based on theory, a flexibility market can be seen as an innovative market and that the establishment process involves various market stabilizing actions. Flexibility markets also imply a need for innovative business models for market participants. Regarding the obstacles and challenges identified in the flexibility markets during the thesis, there are risks of market failure caused by asymmetric information, high transaction costs, bounded rationality, and externalities.

The goal of this study is to determine the economic implications of incorporating intermittent renewable energy into current power systems. The study also considers how to achieve an optimal mix of generating assets with renewable power, as well as the costs and advantages of using renewable energy sources to reduce CO2 emissions. Furthermore, this study examines how renewable energy exacerbates the "missing money" problem, which is a critical problem in electricity market design. The last part of this research is devoted to the calibration of the hybrid electricity grid model. We adopt positive mathematical programming (PMP) to calibrate the quadratic cost function for fossil fuel power plants. The calibrated model enables us to better analyze the impact of renewable energy on the electricity market. We find that due to the intermittency of wind and solar power, renewable energy could replace part of the peak load capacity like gas turbines but is not able to replace most of the base load capacity like coal capacities. The unintended consequences are that to eliminate the coal base load capacity, other forms of baseload capacities such as nuclear or hydropower capacity are necessary to incorporate the intermittent renewable power. Moreover, the capacity factors of remained peak load capacities and newly built base load capacities declined. Further support policies for maintaining the capacity adequacy standard are necessary for a reliable hybrid electricity market. / Graduate / 2023-09-26

More renewable energy leads to higher energy imbalances in the Swedish electric power system. In the same time, the grid capacity is almost reached in some regions which requires an extension of the current grids or a reduction of the power consumption. Demand response could be a key factor for both stabilizing the energy balances and reducing the grid congestion. The aim with this thesis is to analyze the potential incomes that demand response from heat pumps can generate for the balance responsibility parties and the grid operators and evaluate how it would affect the end-consumers.   The investigated local grid that contains of 174 multi-family buildings with heat pumps could reduce its highest peak power with 2,9 MW. This peak power reduction generated a cost reduction of 483 000 SEK per year or 2800 SEK per building per year in reduced penalty fees and power subscription fees. The mFRR market and the power reserve market were determined to be the most suitable markets for using demand response from heat pumps on for the balance responsibility party in the electricity price region SE3. SE3 consists of 10146 multi-family buildings with heat pumps. The mFRR market generated an average income of 2 699 000 SEK per winter season whereas the power reserve market generated a yearly administrative compensation of 1 133 000 SEK per season and 104 000 SEK per call-off. It is important that end-consumers obtain demand-based tariffs or hourly based tariffs to enable a cost reduction from the control system.

Acts of terrorism are used by various individuals, groups and transnational networks to push forward own political views, ideas and ideology on society whilst using multiple forms of violence. Their acts of violence are able to jeopardize and endanger health and safety of peoples, environment and the vitality of critical infrastructure as well. Nowadays the most spelled threat comes from so called foreign fighters whose destabilized and war-torn countries of origin are located in Northern Africa and Middle East. In combination with inefficient management of illegal migration phenomenon and unsatisfactory EU policies on that matter the problem becomes even more amplified. Schengen Area provides EU-members with non-restrictive border regime which fosters migration and trade by a great deal but on the other hand it creates an enormous security risk in terms of terrorism and its prevention. For that matter there should be much more emphasis added to the management of EU outside borders. The second most problematic issue are the matters of radicalization of individuals and minority groups in the EU. There might be a causal relationship between growing rates of frustration between peoples and social marginalization of noted societal groups which might be caused by unsatisfactory assimilation policies of respective EU member states. The goal of this given thesis was to analyze risks to Czech electrical grid which might be posed by an act of terrorism. The analysis was done by breaking down the electrical grid safety measures into respective sectors and parts. Risk for each particular category were analyzed and final risk assessment whilst using help of security professionals. A questionnaire method was used to complete this particular task. The questionnaire dataset was later used to identification of most vulnerable weak-points in the electricity transmission system of the Czech Republic in respect to acts of terrorism. This diploma thesis might be used as a blueprint for improvements in the security management of the Czech electricity transmission system and for educatory purposes at the University of South Bohemia, at the Faculty of Health and Social Sciences.

Sweden has developed ambitious goals regarding energy and climate politics. One major goal is to change the entire electricity production from fossil fuels to sustainable energy sources, this will contribute to Sweden being one of the first countries in the world with non-fossil fuel in the electricity sector. To manage this, major changes need to be implemented and difficulties on the existing grid will occur with the expansion of digitalization, electrification and urbanization. By using smart grids, it is possible to deal with these problems and change the existing electricity grid to use more distributed power generation, contributing to flexibility, stability and controllability. The goal with smart grids is to have a sustainable electricity grid with low losses, security of supply, environmental-friendly generation and also have choices and affordable electricity for customers. The purpose of this project is to identify and evaluate several indicators for a smart grid, how they relate and are affected when different scenarios with different technologies are implemented in a test system. Smart grid indicators are quantified metrics that measure the smartness of an electrical grid. There are five scenarios where all are based on possible changes in the society and electricity consumption, these scenarios are; Scenario A – Solar power integration, Scenario B – Energy storage integration, Scenario C – Electric vehicles integration, Scenario D – Demand response and Scenario E – Solar power, Energy storage, Electric vehicles and Demand response integration. A model is implemented in MATLAB and with Monte Carlo simulations expected values, standard deviation and confidence interval were gained. Four selected indicators (Efficiency, capacity factor, load factor and relative utilization) was then analyzed. The results show that progress on indicators related to all smart grid characteristics is needed for the successful development of a smart grid. In scenario C, all four selected indicators improved. This shows that these indicators could be useful for promoting the integration of electric vehicles in an electricity grid. In Scenario A, solar power integration contributed to all indicators deteriorate, this means that, technical solutions that can stabilize the grid are necessary to implement when integrating photovoltaic systems. The load factor is a good indicator for evaluating smart grids. This indicator can incentivize for an even load and minimize the peak loads which contributes to a flexible and efficient grid. With the capacity factor, the utilization and free capacity can be measured in the grid, but it can counteract renewable energy integration if the indicator is used in regulation.