The increasing environmental issues and the measures taken to tackle them, is a topic ofhigh significance in today’s society. In light of this, the EU is underway with developinga taxonomy classifying sustainable economic activities in hopes to raise awareness, increase transparency regarding environmental impact, and motivate investors to invest sustainable. This paper aims to examine if the taxonomy is relevant to its cause, as well as if sustainability factors can be identified with linear regression connected to growth in a company’s value, which may motivate sustainable investments. Several interviews were conducted, along with the creation of a mathematical model. The conclusions drawn was that it is not viable to determine a company’s growth in value using solely sustainability factors. However, the results were promising regarding the implementation of sustainability factors in more comprehensive models. Furthermore, the impact of the taxonomy was hard to predict at this time, however, the consensus of the majority of the interviews conducted with experts on the subject, is that it has potential to impact sustainable investments in the future. Future research on the taxonomy may yield results of higher interest since more comprehensive data will be available, and the impact of the taxonomy will be more concrete. / De ökande klimatförändringarna och dess åtgärder är ett viktigt ämne i dagens samhälle. I skenet av detta, håller EU på att ta fram en taxonomi som ett verktyg för att klassificera hållbara ekonomiska aktiviteter med hoppet att öka medvetenheten och transparensen kring miljöpåverkan samt motivera investerare att investera hållbart. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka om taxonomin är relevant för sitt syfte, samt om tillväxt i ett företags marknadsvärde kan relateras till hållbarhets faktorer, vilket skulle kunna motivera hållbara investeringar. Flertalet intervjuer genomfördes, tillsammans med skapandet av en matematisk modell. Slutsatserna från modellen var att det inte går att bestämma ett företags värde tillväxt med enbart hållbarhetsfaktorer, däremot såg resultaten från mer omfattande modeller mer lovande ut vad det gäller detta. Vidare var taxonomins inverkan svår att förutspå vid detta tillfälle, däremot var konsensus från majoriteten av de genomförda intervjuerna att den har potential att påverka hållbara investeringar i framtiden. Framtida forskning på taxonomin kan förse mer intressanta resultat eftersom att mer omfattande uppgifter kommer att finnas tillgängligt, och effekterna av taxonomin blir mer konkreta. / <p>Samarbete mellan SCI-skolan / Matematik (Abrahamsson) 15hp och ITM-skolan / Energiteknik (Ekblom) 15hp</p>

<p> This dissertation studies two important problems in the field of biomass supply chain network. In the first part of the dissertation, we study the impact of different carbon regulatory policies such as carbon cap, carbon tax, carbon cap-and-trade and carbon offsetmechanism on the design and management of a biofuel supply chain network under both deterministic and stochastic settings. These mathematical models identify locations and production capacities for biocrude production plants by exploring the trade-offs that exist between transportations costs, facility investment costs and emissions. The model is solved using a modified L-shaped algorithm. We used the state of Mississippi as a testing ground for our model. A number of observations are made about the impact of each policy on the biofuel supply chain network. </p><p> In the second part of the dissertation, we study the impact of intermodal hub disruption on a biofuel supply chain network. We present mathematical model that designs multimodal transportation network for a biofuel supply chain system, where intermodal hubs are subject to site-dependent probabilistic disruptions. The disruption probabilities of intermodal hubs are estimated by using a probabilistic model which is developed using real world data. We further extend this model to develop a mixed integer nonlinear program that allocates intermodal hub dynamically to cope with biomass supply fluctuations and to hedge against natural disasters. We developed a rolling horizon based Benders decomposition algorithm to solve this challenging NP-hard problem. Numerical experiments show that this proposed algorithm can solve large scale problem instances to a near optimal solution in a reasonable time. We applied the models to a case study using data from the southeast region of U.S. Finally, a number of managerial insights are drawn into the impact of intermodal-related risk on the supply chain performance.</p>

An increased share of electricity production from variable energy sources, especially wind and solar power, and loss of inertia in the system, result in higher demands of frequency control. In the last decades, the quality of the grid frequency in the Nordic power system has gradually deteriorated. This thesis has examined if an introduction of a new frequency control service, called fast FCR‑N, can improve the frequency quality. Today, almost all of the frequency control in the Nordic countries is provided by hydropower units.  Whether fast FCR-N can reduce wear and tear on the hydropower units was also studied. Numerical simulations of a one-area model representing primary frequency control and the Nordic electrical grid were carried out in Matlab Simulink. Two different designs of fast FCR-N, proportional and deadband design, were introduced in the system. The system performance regarding frequency quality and hydropower control work was evaluated. The results show that both proportional and deadband fast FCR-N improve the system performance. Still, studies on a future scenario, assuming less inertia and frequency dependent load in the system, indicated that further actions need to be taken to get significantly better frequency quality in the future compared to today.

Elproduktion är en viktig del i dagens samhälle och hur man producerar elen har blivit en viktig fråga som diskuteras flitigt i Sverige och i omvärlden. I Sverige har elanvändningen och elproduktionen varit i närmaste oförändrad sedan 90-talet. Elanvändningen i Sverige är ca 140 TWh per år och drygt 40 % av detta produceras av kärnkraften. Detta medför att kärnkraften är en viktig del av den Svenska elproduktionen. Kärnkrafts-bolagen som äger kärnkraftverken i Sverige letar alltid efter sätt för att förbättra säkerheten på sina anläggningar samt att genomföra verkningsgradsförbättringar som minskar bränsleanvändningen. Det här arbetet inriktar sig på att öka produktionsförmågan genom att genomföra en verkningsgradsförbättring. Rapporten använder sig av en kvantitativmetod och behandlar vilka förutsättningar samt lösningar det finns till att sänka kylvattentemperaturen vid kärnkraftsanläggningen i Forsmark. Arbetet begränsar sig till att endast ge en överblick för vilka lösningar som finns. Ingen av lösningarna undersökas på djupet med undantag på mammutpumpar. Forsmark kärnkraftsanläggning består utav tre stycken reaktorer och använder tillsammans ca 145 m3/s kylvatten för att kyla ner ångan i turbinkondensatorerna. Att sänka temperaturen på kylvattnet med en grad innebär en verkningsgradsförbättring på 0,444 % vilket är utrett i rapporten. En sådan förbättring innebär att Forsmarks reaktor 3 ökar sin nettoeffekt med 5,25 MW. Att sänka kylvattentemperaturen kan göras på många sätt och i denna rapport ansågs det vara relevant att undersöka lösningar som lyfter upp bottenvatten eller blandar om vattnet ifrån olika nivåer i havet. De lösningarna som undersöktes var mammutpumpar, luftridå en vägg längst ytan, utgrävning av kylvattenkanal, förlängning av existerande kanal, djupvattenintag och strömbildare på botten. Den lösning som ansågs vara den mest attraktiva lösningen var luftridå och det var på grund utav att dess fördelar var många och dess nackdelar inte var alltför stora. De slutsatser som görs i denna rapport kan användas i andra reaktorer runtom i världen som har liknande förutsättningar.

The thesis cover the energy efficiency of a multi-family house from the 1940s situated in Halmstad. As the energy performance in buildings gets better and the energy solutions aregetting smarter, the requirements will be higher for new construction. On the other hand, realestate from the 40's remains the same and are often operated with the same heating systemsas those when originally put into operation.The purpose of the report is to investigate the potential for energy efficiency in olderbuildings as well as the financial consequences of the energy-efficient solutions.The thesis is written on behalf of Halmstad Fastighets AB (HFAB), who intends to evaluatethe neighborhood in 2019 and subsequently decide on the future of the housing area. Thereport is based on this area as a reference and the action proposals presented in the report aresimulated in this housing area. The housing area was commissioned in 1943 and consists offive houses, one longer structure and four point-houses, which makes it the first multiresidentialarea owned and operated by the company. HFAB has an internal target of 75 kWh/m2, year for the entire property stock at the turn of the year 2050, which represents a targetvalue that the report intends to achieve.The report is divided into two parts, the first describing the buildings' current energy systemfrom a theoretical and technical point of view and including an energy survey on existingenergy flows for the properties. The energy survey then constitute the foundation for thesecond part, where theory and technical construction of the systems installed with the actionproposals are described together with reports on the theory for energy saving calculations.The results show that a renovation and investment with modern technology and energyefficient solutions has a major impact on the final energy use, even reaching lower specificvalues than those defined as internal goals within the company. Energy-efficient investmentscan also be a profitable investment from an economic point of view, providing additionalincentives for the property owner. / Detta examensarbete behandlar energieffektivisering av ett flerbostadshuskvarter från 1940-talet beläget i Halmstad. Energieffektivisering är ett högst aktuellt ämne och i takt med attenergiprestanda i byggnader blir bättre och energilösningarna smartare så kommer kraven blihögre för nybyggnationer. Däremot står många fastigheter från 40-talet talet kvar och drivsmed samma uppvärmningssystem sedan det tagits i drift.Syftet med rapporten är att undersöka potentialen för energieffektivisering i äldre hus samtvilka ekonomiska konsekvenser de energitekniska lösningarna står för.Examensarbetet har genomförts på uppdrag av Halmstad Fastighets AB (HFAB), som avserutvärdera energianvändningen i kvarteret Framtiden år 2019 och sedermera ta beslut ombostadsområdets framtid. Rapporten utgår med detta område som referens och deåtgärdsförslag som tas fram i arbetet simuleras på detta bostadsområde. Området består avfem huskroppar, en länga och fyra punkthus, och togs i drift 1943, vilket gör området tillHFABs första flerbostadsområde. HFAB har ett internt mål på 75kWh/m2, år för hela dessfastighetsbestånd vid årsskiftet 2050, vilket är en gräns rapporten avser att uppnå.Rapporten är uppdelad i två delar där den första beskriver fastigheternas nuvarandeenergisystem ur en teoretisk och teknisk synpunkt samt innehåller en energikartläggning påbefintliga energiflöden för fastigheterna. Energikartläggningen lägger sedan grunden förandra delen, där teori och teknisk uppbyggnad av de system som installeras medåtgärdsförslagen beskrivs tillsammans med en redovisning av teori för beräkningar avenergibesparingar.Resultat visar att renovering och investering med modern teknik och energieffektivalösningar har stor inverkan på den slutgiltiga energianvändningen, vilken t.o.m. kanunderskrida de interna målen satta inom HFAB. Energieffektiva investeringar kan även varaen lönsam investering ur en ekonomisk synpunkt, vilket ger ytterligare ett incitament förfastighetsägaren.

In the transition from traditional power plants to more environmentally friendly alternatives will generate a need for more flexibility in production, transmission and consumption. Energy storage can be provide the flexibility that are required to continue to have a robust and stable electrical system. The purpose of this report is to give an overview of the electrical energy storage technologies. The classification of energy storage technologies used in this report is mechanical, chemical and electrical. In these three categories were ten different technologies presented with function, advantages, disadvantages, degree of maturity and research area for each technology. The distribution between the globally operational energy storage technologies were presented. Also the framework and regulations for actors to own and operate an energy storage in Sweden. This review was complemented with a case study about connecting a lithium ion battery system to a wind farm. The case investigated the profitability for 20 MW wind farm with a 12 MW and 18 MWh energy storage system for a five and ten-year period. The utilization of the storage was optimized with \textit{What's best} for three different investment cost. The review were done in order to answer: what is the futures energy storage technology?, what applications can be replaced by energy storage for an electricity producer? and what will the effects be of the new actor Aggregator? The result from comparing three different prices for lithium ion batteries resulted in a non-profit scenario for all the cases in a five-year period. There were a maximum, minimum and predicted futuristic price, which generated a loss of 731, 220 and 76.6 MSEK for respective case. Only the futuristic price for a ten-year period indicated an profit. The conclusion that can be drawn from this case study is that energy storage is too expensive and the extra income from utilization of the energy storage is not enough to motivate an energy storage investment. There are not a single technology that possesses all of the required properties for the applications. In the future there will be a combination of technologies to cover all the applications. For the seasonal storage pumped hydro and compressed air are most promising technologies. The flywheels and supercapacitors can contribute with short powerful burst of energy that are needed for power quality and operating reserves. For the more wide range application such as power fleet optimization and integrate the renewable energy production, batteries in form of lithium ion battery and sodium-sulfur battery will most probably be used. For electricity producers energy storage can replace existing solutions. Instead of using diesel generators for black start services, an battery can be used. Also the power quality could be enhanced with batteries acting as filters. The process can be more utilized in a more efficient way with an energy storage. The aggregator actor gathers small variable load from e.g several houses and participate on the electricity market. This actor will level out the differences in power demand during the day. It will reduce the losses and reduce the need for grid investments in both the transmission and distribution networks. It would also generate more available frequency reserves and probably change how the market is paying for the generated benefits.

Miljöcertifiering av byggnader är ett verktyg för arbetet mot Sveriges miljökvalitetsmål. Bygg- och fastighetssektorn står för en stor del av växthusgasutsläppen och bränsleanvändningen i Sverige, och miljöcertifieringssystem fungerar som incitament till att verka för förbättringar. Det svenska systemet Miljöbyggnad har växt kraftigt de sista åren, och ger ett alternativ för den Svenska marknaden. Systemet bedömer en byggnad utifrån 16 indikatorer som viktas till ett totalbetyg för byggnaden. Byggnaden kan få betygen Brons, Silver eller Guld. Syftet med det här arbetet var att utreda och belysa risker och möjligheter med miljöcertifieringssystemet Miljöbyggnad, för båda parter (beställare och entreprenör) i en totalentreprenad. Detta genom att med hjälp av en referensbyggnad utfördes en ekonomisk optimering av certifieringssystemet Miljöbyggnads indikatorer för totalbetyg Silver. Från resultatet skapades en metodik och generell förståelse bildades som kunna appliceras i framtida byggnadsprojekt. Målet med arbetet var att bedöma referensbyggnaden utifrån Miljöbyggnads kriterier. Utifrån bedömningen ska två ekonomiskt optimala indikatorkonfigurationer tas fram, en för beställaren och en för entreprenören, som båda ger totalbetyget Silver. En modell av referensbyggnaden (en skola) ritades först upp utifrån arkitektens ritningar, och byggdes sedan i en simuleringsprogramvara. Som indata till simuleringarna användes i huvudsak projekteringsanvisningar från referensbyggnadens ägare. Simuleringar och beräkningar för att bedöma byggnaden utfördes enligt Miljöbyggnads anvisningar. Från resultatet av bedömningen undersöktes möjligheter att optimera systemet. Ett antal åtgärder testades för att förändra indikatorbetygen, där kostnadsskillnader och återbetalningstider beräknades. Byggnadens bedömdes som helhet till Miljöbyggnad Silver, och indikatorbetygen sträckte sig från Brons till Guld. I den optimala indikatorkonfiguration för entreprenören sänktes betyget på indikatorn Värmeeffektbehov från den ursprungliga bedömningen. Från de åtgärder som undersöktes ansågs besparingsmöjligheter finnas för entreprenören i endast ett ändrat klimatskal, där vägg, tak och platta på mark försämrades. I den optimala indikatorkonfigurationen för beställaren höjdes betyget för indikatorn Energianvändning och sänktes för indikatorn Energislag. För beställaren ansågs besparingsmöjligheter finnas ifall lika försämringar av klimatskalet samt en investering i bättre fönster genomfördes, ett solvärmesystem för tappvarmvatten och uppvärmning installerades samt att nordisk elmix användes som fastighetsel och verksamhetsel. Slutsatsen från det här arbete är att göra en upphandling som beställare med endast krav på byggnadens totalbetyg är inte att rekommendera.En certifiering med Miljöbyggnads i totalentreprenad medför inte nödvändigtvis den mest energisparsamma byggnaden, utan tydliga ekonomiska risker finns. Speciellt för de indikatorerna som har kopplingar till området Energi i certifieringssystemet, och i praktiken byggnadens driftkostnader för energi. I en mer styrd entreprenaden med krav på indikatornivå och även tekniska lösningar, finns möjligheter för beställaren att påverka flera indikatorbetyg, samt göra kostnadsbesparingar. / Environmental assessment for buildings is a means to reach the national environmental goals of Sweden. The construction and real estate sector accounts for a large part of Sweden's green house gas emissions and use of fuel, and environmental assessment tools can work as an incentive to improve on that. The Swedish tool Miljöbyggnad has grown considerably the last few years, and gives a solid option for the Swedish market. The tool assesses 16 indicators that are weighted together to give a building a final rating. The building can be rated Brons, Silver or Gold. The purpose of this study was to investigate and demonstrate risks and opportunities with the environmental assessment tool Miljöbyggnad, for both parties (the client and the contractor) in a design-build contract. This was accomplished by conducting a economic optimization of selected assessment tools indicators for a final rating of Silver, with the help of a reference building. From the result a methodology and general comprehension were acquired that can be applied in future construction projects. The aim of the study was to assess the reference building according to Miljöbyggnad's criteria. Then from the assessment present two optimal indicator configurations, one for the client and one for the contractor, that both yield a final grade of Silver. A model of the reference building was drawn using the architects drawings, and then built within an simulation software. Input for the simulations were mainly design instructions from the property owner of the reference building. Simulations and calculations to assess the building was conducted according to instructions from the Miljöbyggnad manual. From the result of the assessment, possibilities for optimization were investigated. A couple of actions were tested for their possibility to change the indicator grades, and differences in costs and pay-back times were calculated. The building was given a final grade of Miljöbyggnad Silver, where the indicator grades ranged from Bronze to Gold. In the optimal indicator configuration for the contractor, the grade of the indicator Heating demand was lowered from the original assessment. From the actions that were tested a saving opportunity was yielded from changing of the envelope, walls, roof and slab was worsened. In the optimal indicator configuration for the client, the grade of the indicator Energy use was increased and the grade of the indicator Energy sources was lowered. Saving opportunities were yielded from doing the same envelope changes but also improving windows, installing solar collectors and using Nordic electricity mix for appliance and building operation electricity. The conclusion from this study is that as a client to only demand a final grade for the building as part of the procurement is not recommended. A Miljöbyggnad certification with a design-build contract does not necessarily signify the most energy efficient building, there are distinct risks. Especially regarding the indicators within the area Energy in the assessment tool, and in practice the building's operating costs for energy. In a more controlled design-build contract with demands on specific indicators and even technical solutions, there are opportunities for the client to affect several indicator grades, as well as make cost savings.

Cu-In, Cu-Al and Cu-In-Al metallic precursor layers were deposited using radio-frequency magnetron sputtering and selenised to produce thin films of CuInSe2 (CIS), CuAlSe2 (CAS) and CuIn1-xAlxSe2 (CIAS), respectively. The selenisation stage of this 2-stage process was carried out in a tube furnace (TF) or a rapid thermal processor (RTP) in the presence of elemental Se, either deposited on top of the precursor film or provided from an external source in the chamber, in order to fabricate the chalcopyrite material. The aim was to produce single phase, device quality CIS, CAS and CIAS for use as an absorber layer material in thin film photovoltaic solar cells. Profilometry performed on the as-deposited Cu-In-Al metallic precursors showed an important increase in surface roughness compared to the Cu-In and Cu-Al precursors. This was found to be due to the preferential formation of Cu9(In,Al)4, which stoichiometry led the excess In to form island-shaped In phases at the surface of the bulk, while only Cu2In and CuIn2 formed in Cu-In precursors. Regarding the selenisation, temperatures ranging from 250°C to 550°C were used, and the resulting samples were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) and glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GD-OES). Thin films of single phase CIS and CAS were successfully produced with energy band gaps of 0.99 eV and 2.68 eV, respectively. However the incorporation of Al proved to be difficult. The results showed that no incorporation of the Al into the chalcopyrite lattice was achieved in the samples selenised in the RTP, which was believed to be due to the oxidation of the element Al into amorphous Al2O3. In the tube furnace, possibly due to lower levels of oxidation, incorporation occurred more readily but Al and In segregated towards the back and front of the layer, respectively. The causes of the segregation were studied and solutions to avoid it developed, resulting under certain conditions in successful production of CuIn1-xAlxSe2. Samples were tested in a photoelectrochemical cell and showed (apparent) external quantum efficiency values comparable to a CuInSe2 (CIS) sample used as a standard.

The diploma thesis' aim is to estimate the value of an engineering company in the eyes of a potential strategic investor. The thesis covers the key aspects of valuation including financinal analysis and strategic analysis of the underlying asset. The gained knowledge and projection results are used in preparation of a financial plan as well as the valuation itself. The results of the valuation are accompanied by several recommendations to the potential investor.

One of the global sub-goals states that rehabilitation and adaptation of industrial infrastructure is important for making industries more sustainable, with more efficient use of resources by year 2030. Increased energy prices, strict environmental requirements, new control instruments for efficient end use of energy have created an increased desire to reduce energy use and related energy costs. Sweden has a goal of increasing the renewable electricity production by 18 TWh by year 2030 using the control instrument electricity certificate. Energy efficiency can be achieved at: the different kinds of processes in the mill, assistant systems, and heat and electricity supply (power generation). In this study, the main focus will be on power generation. The paper and pulp industry uses large amounts of different energy types in all processes in the factory. In this study, the focus is on the energy type steam. One of the basic requirements that a cogeneration system needs to follow is the steam pressure requirements of all the steam-consuming processes in the mill. In this study, all the steam-consuming processes on the low-pressure network have been investigated. The study is limited to the month of September year 2018. The system boundaries start from the recovery boilers and the bark boiler, and then the steam path is followed through the grid and ends at the steam consuming processes. The method is divided into two main parts: In the first part, a calculation model of the zero system was constructed. The second part is a study of the pressure requirements of the steam consuming processes on the low-pressure side. It is possible to demand control the turbine. The evaporation processes control the demand system. The other processes that limiting the lowest pressure are considered to be: The feed water tank and the receiver (at drying machine 8). The low-pressure network can be reduced from 3.2 to 2.92 bar (over pressure) without any applications. The pressure may be further reduced if a technical investigation is carried out over the turbine. The minimum design pressure of the steam consuming processes is considered 2.5 bar (over pressure). The pressure limit: 2.92 bar (over pressure) gave a cost reduction of 2.64 million SEK per year. 2.5 bar (over pressure) gave a cost reduction of 4,69 million SEK per year. Optimized operation is considered an approval measure for the allocation of electricity certificates. 8982 electricity certificates will be given if it is 100 percent allocation of electricity certificates of the turbines generated electricity with a design reduction of the pressure to 2.5 bar (over pressure). The certificates then corresponds to an income increase of 2.25 million SEK per year.