Rising energy demand, fossil fuel costs, and greenhouse gas emissions have led to a growing interest in renewable energy integration. Remote communities, often accompanied by high energy costs and abundant renewable energy resources, are ideal cases for renewable energy integration. The Queen Charlotte Islands, also known as Haida Gwaii, are a remote archipelago off the northwest coast of British Columbia, Canada that relies heavily on diesel fuel for energy generation. An investigation is done into the potential for electricity generation using both tidal stream and wave energy in Haida Gwaii. A mixed integer optimization network model is developed in a Matlab and GAMS software environment, subject to set of system constraints including minimum operational levels and transmission capacities. The unit commitment and economic dispatch decisions are dynamically solved for four periods of 336 hours, representing the four annual seasons. Optimization results are used to develop an operational strategy simulation model, indicative of realistic operator behaviour. Results from both models find that the tidal stream energy resource in Haida Gwaii has a larger potential to reduce energy costs than wave energy; however, tidal steam energy is more difficult to integrate from a system operation point of view and, in the absence of storage, would only be practical at power penetration levels less than 20%.

The development of sustainable business models is a challenging task since various factors might influence the results of an assessment. Given the complexity at the municipal level, system interdependencies between different alternatives need to be considered. One possibility to support decision makers is to apply energy system optimization models. Existing optimization models, however, ignore the roles different actors play and the resulting impact they have. To address this research issue, this thesis presents an integrated techno-economic optimization framework called IRPopt (Integrated Resource Planning and Optimization). A proven graph-based energy system approach allows the accurate modeling of deployment systems by considering different energy carriers and technical processes. In addition, a graph-based commercial association approach enables the integration of actor-oriented coordination. This is achieved by the explicit modeling of market actors on one layer and technology processes on another layer as well as resource flow interrelations and commercial agreements mechanism among and between the different layers. Using the optimization framework, various optimization problems are solvable on the basis of a generic objective function. For demonstration purposes, this thesis assesses the business models demand response and community storage. The applied examples demonstrate the modeling capabilities of the developed optimization framework. Further, the dispatch results show the usefulness of the described optimization approach.

One of the biggest challenges of today is to mitigate climate change and adjust our way of living in accordance with sustainability. To reduce the climate impact of the transport sector the electrification of the road transport sector is commonly seen as having a key role to play. The rate of increase in number of electric cars has increased dramatically the recent years. Substantial electrification of the transport sector highlights the need of efficient integration of EVs with the electricity grid in order to handle the extra electricity demand. A potentia lway of efficiently integrating EVs to the grid could be to apply the concept of vehicle to grid (V2G). V2G simply means that the battery within an EV is seen as a storage component of the electricity grid that can be charged and discharged. Hence, in this thesis, the potential of V2G is explored. This thesis comprises of two parts. The first part investigates this potential impact of V2G in a future Swedish energy system. The second part investigates the optimized economic value, a car sharing company can achieve using different charging modes as well as the potential for participation in Swedish ancillary service markets. For the first part, the dispatch model EnergyPLAN was used to simulate a future energy system in Sweden in 2045. For the second part, an optimization model was designed using Python Optimization Modeling Objects (PYOMO) to optimize the charging and V2G usage of a car sharing fleet. Additionally, the battery degradation cost due to V2G was calculated as well as the potential income from participation in the FCR-D up and FCR-D down market. For both parts of the thesis different scenarios were developed. Scenarios with different electrification rate of the transport sector, V2G compatibility as well as different electricity production mix were considered for energy systems model of Sweden. For participation of shared cars in ancillary services market, scenarios related to different charging modes, rated charging power and the impact of including or excluding tax on sold electricity were created. While analysing the impact of V2G on Swedish energy system in future, it was observed that V2G has a marginal system impact on an annual basis, regardless of transport electrification rate, V2G compatibility and energy mix. The analysis of optimization algorithm for participation of shared pool of 255 cars resulted in economic savings when implementing smart charging and V2G. Due to battery degradation, the savings from integrating V2G in the system were marginal compared to the smart charging annual cost. For both the FCR-D up market and FCR-D down market, the revenue for participation was higher than electricity arbitrage through V2G. Both parts of the methodology, highlight the need for in centives inorder to make V2G an attractive business model and for electric cars to be able to provide flexibility services in a future Swedish energy system. / En av dagens största utmaningar är att begränsa klimatförändringarna och anpassa vårt sätt att leva i enlighet med hållbarhet. För att minska transportsektorns klimatpåverkan anses elektrifieringen av vägtransportsektorn allmänt ha en nyckelroll att spela. ökningstakten i antalet elbilar har ökat dramatiskt de senaste åren. En betydande elektrifiering av transportsektorn belyser behovet av en effektiv integrering av elfordon med elnätet för att hantera den extra efterfrågan på el. Ett potentiellt sätt att effektivt integrera elfordon i nätet skulle kunna vara att tillämpa begreppet fordon till nät (V2G). V2G innebär helt enkelt att batteriet i en elbil ses som en lagringskomponent i elnätet som kan laddas och laddas ur. Därför undersöks potentialen för V2G i detta examensarbete. Detta examensarbete består av två delar. Den första delen undersöker den potentiella påverkan av V2G i ett framtida svenskt energisystem. Den andra delen undersöker det optimerade ekonomiska värde som ett bildelningsföretag kan uppnå med olika laddningslägen samt potentialen för deltagande på svenska stödtjänstmarknader. För den första delen användes modeller-ingsverktyget EnergyPLAN för att simulera ett framtida energisystem i Sverige 2045. För den andra delen gjordes en optimeringsmodell med hjälp av Python Optimization Modeling Objects (PYOMO) för att optimera laddningen och V2G-användningen av en bildelningsflotta. Dessutom beräknades batterinedbrytningskostnaden på grund av V2G samt de potentiella intäkterna från deltagande på FCR-D upp och FCR-D ned-marknaden. För båda delarna av examensarbetet utvecklades olika scenarier. I den första delen jämförs scenarier med olika elektrifieringstakter inom transportsektorn, V2G-kompatibilitet samt olika elproduktionsmixar. För deltagande av bildelningsbilar på stödtjänstemarknader, skapades scenarion kopplat till olika laddningslägen, nominell laddningseffekt och effekterna av att inkludera eller exkludera skatt på såld el. Vid analys av V2G:s inverkan på det svenska energisystemet i framtiden observerades det att V2G har en marginell systempåverkan på årsbasis, oavsett transporteltrifikationshastighet, V2G-kompatibilitet och energimix. Analysen av optimeringsalgoritm för deltagande av delad bilpool med 255 bilar resulterade i ekonomiska besparingar vid implementering av smart laddning och V2G. På grund av batteriförsämring, blev besparingarna frĂĽn att integrera V2G i systemet marginella jämfört med den årliga kostnaden för smart laddning. För både FCR-D upp och FCR-D ned marknaderna var intäkterna för deltagande högre än el arbitrage genom V2G. Båda delarna av metodiken belyser behovet av incitament i för att göra V2G till en attraktiv affärsmodell och för att elbilar ska kunna tillhandahålla flexibilitetstjänster i ett framtida svenskt energisystem.

The ocean has tremendous potential in terms of energy generation, and wave energy is especially promising. However, wave energy technology is still non-commercial. Along with ambitious renewable energy targets and investments, much is happening within the field and the wave energy converter developers CorPower Ocean intend to have their technology proven in the upcoming years. This study aims at investigating the value of commercial wave energy in an energy system. This is fulfilled by the possibilities of achieving 24/7 Carbon-free Energy with the wave energy technology from CorPower Ocean at the stage of commercialization. An energy system is modeled with wave energy, floating offshore wind energy, lithium-ion battery storage and the Portuguese national grid, supplying Northvolt’s and Galp’s future lithium conversion facility in Portugal. Different system configurations are compared based on three Key Performance Indicators: 24/7 Carbon-free Energy performance, system emission, and cost for the electricity consumer. In addition, a review of available financial support mechanisms for renewable energy technologies and especially wave energy is done to understand how such mechanisms can affect the economic feasibility of the energy system modeled. The wave energy technology from CorPower Ocean shows to have a high power output and 24/7 carbon-free Energy performance in this study. Although a combination of wave and floating offshore wind energy better ensure energy security with generation profiles that peak at different times, the modeling shows that a system with wave energy alone is preferred for supplying the facility with electricity both from an environmental and economic perspective. The economic feasibility of Lithium-ion battery storage in the system is uncertain and to achieve 24/7 Carbon-free Energy supply of the facility a longer duration storage solution is needed. The price for wave energy in this study is higher than for other commercial renewable energy technologies such as solar PV. However, based on the available financial support structures from governments and other stakeholders, wave energy technology has the potential to be competitive as soon as the technology is proven. / Energigenerering från våra hav har stor potential, inte minst från vågkraft. Trots att vågkraftstekniken ännu inte har nått ett kommersiellt stadie händer det mycket inom området i takt med fler ambitiösa miljökrav och investeringar. CorPower Ocean utvecklar vågkraftsteknik och planerar att ha sin teknik bevisad inom några år. Den här studien syftar till att undersöka värdet av kommersiell vågkraft, vilket uppfylls genom möjligheterna till förnybar el 24 timmar om dygnet med CorPower Ocean’s vågenergiomvandlare. Ett energisystem modelleras med vågkraft, flytande vindkraft, litium-jon batterier och det portugisiska elnätet för att försörja Northvolts och Galps planerade anläggning för litiumkonvertering i Portugal. Olika systemkonfigurationer är jämförda utifrån tre parametrar: 24/7 förnybar el prestation, systemutsläpp och elkostnad för konsumenten. I tillägg utförs en studie om vilka finansiella supportmekanismer som finns för hållbar energiteknik och speciellt för utvecklingen av vågkraft. Detta för att få insikt i om vågkraft kan få finansiellt stöd och konkurrera med andra förnybara energitekniker. Studien visar att vågkraftstekniken presenterar bra utifrån de tre parametrarna. Trots att en kombination av våg och flytande vindkraft ger bättre elsäkerhet med alternerande produktionskurvor visar modelleringen att ett system med endast vågkraft är att föredra både från ett ekonomiskt och ett miljöperspektiv. En investering av litium-jon batterier i energisystemet är tveksam och för att uppnå förnybar elförsörjning av anläggningen 24 timmar om dygnet krävs en energilagringsteknik som möjliggör lagring över längre perioder. Priset för vågkraft i studien är högre än för andra kommersiella förnybara energitekniker så som solpaneler. Baserat på det finansiella stöd som finns från myndigheter och andra intressenter så är det möjligt för vågkraften att bli konkurrenskraftig så fort tekniken är bevisad.

Emerging integration of renewable energy has prompted a wide range of research on the use of energy storage to compensate for the added uncertainty that accompanies these resources. In the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), compressed air energy storage (CAES) has drawn particular attention because Texas has suitable geology and also lacks appropriate resources and locations for pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS). While there have been studies on incorporation of renewable energy, utilization of energy storage, and dispatch optimization, this is the first body of work to integrate all these subjects along with the proven ability to recreate historical dispatch and price conditions. To quantify the operational behavior, economic feasibility, and environmental impacts of CAES, this work utilized sophisticated unit commitment and dispatch (UC&D) models that determine the least-cost dispatch for meeting a set of grid and generator constraints. This work first addressed the ability of these models to recreate historical dispatch and price conditions through a calibration analysis that incorporated major model improvements such as capacity availability and sophisticated treatment of combined heat and power (CHP) plants. These additions appreciably improved the consistency of the model results when compared to historical ERCOT conditions. An initial UC&D model was used to investigate the impacts on the dispatch of a future high wind generation scenario with the potential to utilize numerous CAES facilities. For all future natural gas prices considered, the addition of CAES led to reduced use of high marginal cost generator types, increased use of base-load generator types, and average reductions in the total operating costs of 3.7 million dollars per week. Additional analyses demonstrated the importance of allowing CAES to participate in all available energy and ancillary services (AS) markets and that a reduction in future thermal capacity would increase the use of CAES. A second UC&D model, which incorporated advanced features like variable marginal heat rates, was used to analyze the influence of future wind generation variability on the dispatch and resulting environmental impacts. This analysis revealed that higher amounts of wind variability led to an increase in the daily net load ramping requirements which resulted in less use of coal and nuclear generators in favor of faster ramping units along with reductions in emissions and water use. The changes to the net load also resulted in increased volatility of the energy and AS prices between daily minimum and maximum levels. These impacts were also found to increase with compounding intensity as higher levels of wind variability were reached. Lastly, the advanced UC&D model was also used to evaluate the operational behavior and potential economic feasibility of a first entrant conventional or adiabatic CAES system. Both storage systems were found to operate in a single mode that enabled very high utilization of their capacity indicating both systems have highly desirable characteristics. The results suggest that there is a positive case for the investment in a first entrant CAES facility in the ERCOT market. / text

The transition of the North African electricity system towards renewable energy technologies is analyzed in this thesis. Large potentials of photovoltaics (PV), concentrating solar power (CSP) and onshore wind power provide the opportunity to achieve a long-term shift from conventional power sources to a highly interconnected and sustainable electricity system based on renewable energy sources (RES). A multi-dimensional analysis evaluates the economic and technical effects on the electricity market as well as the socio-economic impact on manufacturing and employment caused by the large deployment of renewable energy technologies. The integration of renewable energy (RE) into the electricity system is modeled in a linear optimization model RESlion which minimizes total system costs of the long-term expansion planning and the hourly generation dispatch problem. With this model, the long-term portfolio mix of technologies, their site selection, required transmission capacities and the hourly operation are analyzed. The focus is set on the integration of renewable energy in the electricity systems of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt with the option to export electricity to Southern European countries. The model results of RESlion show that a very equal portfolio mix consisting of PV, CSP and onshore wind power is optimal in long-term scenarios for the electricity system. Until the year 2050, renewable energy sources dominate with over 70% the electricity generation due to their cost competiveness to conventional power sources. In the case of flexible and dispatchable electricity exports to Europe, all three RE technologies are used by the model at a medium cost perspective. The socio-economic impact of the scenarios is evaluated by a decision model (RETMD) for local manufacturing and job creation in the renewable energy sector which is developed by incorporating findings from expert interviews in the RE industry sector. The electricity scenarios are assessed regarding their potential to create local economic impact and local jobs in manufacturing RE components and constructing RE power plants. With 40,000 to 100,000 new jobs in the RE sector of North African countries, scenarios with substantial RE deployment can provide enormous benefits to the labor market and lead to additional economic growth. The deployment of renewable energy sources in North Africa is consequently accelerated and facilitated by finding a trade-off between an optimal technology portfolio from an electricity system perspective and the opportunities through local manufacturing. By developing two model approaches for evaluating the effects of renewable energy technologies in the electricity system and in the industrial sector, this thesis contributes to the literature on energy economics and energy policy for the large-scale integration of renewable energy in North Africa.

The transition of the North African electricity system towards renewable energy technologies is analyzed in this thesis. Large potentials of photovoltaics (PV), concentrating solar power (CSP) and onshore wind power provide the opportunity to achieve a long-term shift from conventional power sources to a highly interconnected and sustainable electricity system based on renewable energy sources (RES). A multi-dimensional analysis evaluates the economic and technical effects on the electricity market as well as the socio-economic impact on manufacturing and employment caused by the large deployment of renewable energy technologies. The integration of renewable energy (RE) into the electricity system is modeled in a linear optimization model RESlion which minimizes total system costs of the long-term expansion planning and the hourly generation dispatch problem. With this model, the long-term portfolio mix of technologies, their site selection, required transmission capacities and the hourly operation are analyzed. The focus is set on the integration of renewable energy in the electricity systems of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt with the option to export electricity to Southern European countries. The model results of RESlion show that a very equal portfolio mix consisting of PV, CSP and onshore wind power is optimal in long-term scenarios for the electricity system. Until the year 2050, renewable energy sources dominate with over 70% the electricity generation due to their cost competiveness to conventional power sources. In the case of flexible and dispatchable electricity exports to Europe, all three RE technologies are used by the model at a medium cost perspective. The socio-economic impact of the scenarios is evaluated by a decision model (RETMD) for local manufacturing and job creation in the renewable energy sector which is developed by incorporating findings from expert interviews in the RE industry sector. The electricity scenarios are assessed regarding their potential to create local economic impact and local jobs in manufacturing RE components and constructing RE power plants. With 40,000 to 100,000 new jobs in the RE sector of North African countries, scenarios with substantial RE deployment can provide enormous benefits to the labor market and lead to additional economic growth. The deployment of renewable energy sources in North Africa is consequently accelerated and facilitated by finding a trade-off between an optimal technology portfolio from an electricity system perspective and the opportunities through local manufacturing. By developing two model approaches for evaluating the effects of renewable energy technologies in the electricity system and in the industrial sector, this thesis contributes to the literature on energy economics and energy policy for the large-scale integration of renewable energy in North Africa.:Abstract iii Acknowledgement iv Table of contents v List of tables ix List of figures xii List of abbreviations xvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Renewable energy in North Africa 2 1.2 Research questions and aim of this thesis 3 1.2.1 Modeling of electricity systems 4 1.2.2 Modeling of manufacturing and employment impact 6 1.2.3 Optimal renewable energy scenarios 6 1.3 Related research 7 1.4 Structure of thesis 7 2 Modeling fundamentals for electricity systems with renewable energy sources 9 2.1 Energy system modeling 9 2.2 Electricity models 16 2.2.1 Classifications and taxonomy 17 2.2.2 Differences between operation models and planning models 20 2.2.3 Typical modeling approaches 21 2.3 Optimization models 23 2.3.1 Basic model structure 23 2.3.2 Objective functions of electricity models 24 2.3.3 Technical aspects of electricity systems as models constraints 26 2.3.4 Combining different objectives in energy scenarios 27 2.4 Models for high shares of renewable energy 28 2.5 Models for North African electricity systems 31 2.6 Conclusions for model development 34 3 Electricity system of North Africa 36 3.1 Market structure 36 3.2 National targets for renewable energy 40 3.2.1 Morocco 40 3.2.2 Algeria 41 3.2.3 Tunisia 42 3.2.4 Libya 42 3.2.5 Egypt 43 3.3 Long-term development of electricity demand 44 3.4 Electricity exports to Europe 47 3.5 Geopolitical risks for the electricity system 51 4 Development of the electricity market model RESlion 53 4.1 Model requirements and modeling goals 53 4.2 Modeling of renewable energy technologies 56 4.2.1 Onshore wind power plants and wind resources 59 4.2.2 PV power plants and solar resources 61 4.2.3 CSP plants and solar resources 63 4.2.4 Hydro power plants and energy storage systems 65 4.3 General model approach of RESlion 65 4.4 Model description of RESlion 69 4.4.1 Introduction to the model structure 69 4.4.2 Temporal coverage 70 4.4.3 Objective function 72 4.4.4 Technology independent model constraints 74 4.4.5 Regional electricity exchange: Transmission lines 76 4.4.6 Renewable energy technologies 78 4.4.7 Hydro and storage power plants 80 4.4.8 Uncertainty of input parameters and assumptions 81 4.5 Modeling of expansion planning 83 4.6 Modeling of detailed hourly generation dispatch 83 4.7 Extension options to a Mixed Integer Linear Programming model 84 4.8 Solver selection and implementation environment 85 5 Model-based analysis of future electricity scenarios for North Africa 86 5.1 Scenario assumptions 86 5.2 Scenario definition 89 5.3 Technical and economic input data 94 5.4 Model adjustment 99 5.4.1 Electricity generation in reference year 2010 99 5.4.2 Testing of results with detailed hourly generation dispatch 100 5.5 Electricity scenarios for North Africa by 2050 102 5.5.1 Development of the generation system 102 5.5.2 System and generation costs 106 5.5.3 Site selection of RES generation capacities 108 5.5.4 Regional transmission lines 114 5.5.5 Energy storage systems 118 5.5.6 Technology specific generation 119 5.5.7 CO2 emissions 126 5.6 Sensitivity analyses 126 5.6.1 Adaption of market conditions: Split of electricity markets 127 5.6.2 Technology focus 127 5.6.3 Adaption of cost trends for fossil fuels, transmission lines and storage systems 129 5.7 Technology specific findings for CSP, PV and wind power 131 5.7.1 Typical sites and locations for electricity generation from RES 131 5.7.2 Influence of wind speeds and solar irradiation 131 5.7.3 Interactions with conventional power plants 132 5.8 Electricity scenarios with export to Europe 133 5.9 Discussion of RESlion model and its results 139 6 Model development for socio-economic impact analysis 142 6.1 The idea of combining a cost-optimized electricity system with a socio-economic analysis 142 6.2 Literature review and terminology 145 6.3 Data acquisition and further studies 148 6.4 Model description of RETMD 151 6.4.1 Model objectives 151 6.4.2 Model structure and decision modeling 152 6.4.3 Model limitations and uncertainties 156 6.5 Data input of RETMD 157 6.5.1 Construction of reference power plants 157 6.5.2 Operation of reference power plants 159 6.5.3 Status quo of local manufacturing in recent RE projects 160 6.6 Sensitivity of RETMD on market size and know-how 161 6.7 Discussion of model achievements 163 7 Manufacturing and employment impact of optimized electricity scenarios 165 7.1 Demand scenarios for the RE markets from 2012 to 2030 165 7.2 Economic impact and employment creation 166 7.3 Technology specific development of local manufacturing 168 7.4 Country specific development of local manufacturing 172 7.5 Potentials of local manufacturing in each scenarios 174 7.6 Local economic impact 176 7.7 Local employment impact 177 7.8 Evaluation of scenario results 181 7.9 Electricity system analysis and RE manufacturing: Results and discussion of the combined analysis 183 8 Conclusions and outlook 186 8.1 Conclusion on model developments 186 8.2 Conclusion on renewable energy in North Africa 187 8.3 Outlook and further research 189 9 Bibliography 191 10 Appendix 210