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Gas exploration and production at sea and on land is a recent phenomenon in South Africa. The reason for the sudden interest in gas exploration and production on land is that it may prove to be a solution to the need for cleaner forms of energy and provides the possibility for South Africa to move away from coal-based energy. In order to achieve this transition while keeping economic development intact, South Africa is in need of a “greener” option. Gas is considered the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel and therefore provides South Africa with this much needed “greener” option. The uncertainty about the nature and extent of the environmental impacts regarding gas exploration and production suggests that an efficient and effective energy and environmental law and policy framework is still needed to regulate onshore and offshore gas exploration and production during all phases of its life cycle. It furthermore requires of the authorities that they establish and enhance environmental protection and sustainability during all gas exploration and production operations in order to ensure that the environmental impacts that may occur during such operations are addressed in a holistic and integrated manner. This study focuses on conventional gas. South Africa’s energy and environmental law and policy framework that regulates gas exploration does not cover the entire life cycle of onshore and offshore gas activities. It is of paramount importance that the current fragmentation in the country’s existing energy and environmental regulatory framework be addressed and that a sufficient environmental governance regime, as envisaged in this study, is established. This will enable the administering agents to actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people, the ecosystems, the essential ecological processes and the biodiversity of South Africa, while promoting the utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis to the benefit of all South Africans, present and future, as pledged in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Gas exploration and production at sea and on land is a recent phenomenon in South Africa. The reason for the sudden interest in gas exploration and production on land is that it may prove to be a solution to the need for cleaner forms of energy and provides the possibility for South Africa to move away from coal-based energy. In order to achieve this transition while keeping economic development intact, South Africa is in need of a “greener” option. Gas is considered the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel and therefore provides South Africa with this much needed “greener” option. The uncertainty about the nature and extent of the environmental impacts regarding gas exploration and production suggests that an efficient and effective energy and environmental law and policy framework is still needed to regulate onshore and offshore gas exploration and production during all phases of its life cycle. It furthermore requires of the authorities that they establish and enhance environmental protection and sustainability during all gas exploration and production operations in order to ensure that the environmental impacts that may occur during such operations are addressed in a holistic and integrated manner. This study focuses on conventional gas. South Africa’s energy and environmental law and policy framework that regulates gas exploration does not cover the entire life cycle of onshore and offshore gas activities. It is of paramount importance that the current fragmentation in the country’s existing energy and environmental regulatory framework be addressed and that a sufficient environmental governance regime, as envisaged in this study, is established. This will enable the administering agents to actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people, the ecosystems, the essential ecological processes and the biodiversity of South Africa, while promoting the utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis to the benefit of all South Africans, present and future, as pledged in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Thesis (LLD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this dissertation is to conceptualise the principle of "environmental justice". In doing so it attempts to determine its meaning, assess its possible use for the protection of environmental rights in the light of the South African Bill of Rights, and draw, in a comparative manner, on examples from two other jurisdictions, namely the United States of America (USA) and India. In the first part of the study "environmental justice" is defined and thereafter the ways in which the idea of "environmental justice" has found expression in the USA and Indian jurisprudence as well as in legislative and administrative practices in these two countries are analysed comparatively. In reviewing the US experience the study concludes that the courts have shown a conspicuous measure of self-restraint in the conceptualisation of environmental justice. Due to its non-activist and formalistic approach, the judiciary has failed to address systemic environmental inequities, and to carve out remedies whereby environmental injustice could have been dealt with in an effective and meaningful way. The more activist approach of the Indian judiciary, on the other hand, has led to more effective protection of the environment and of people adversely affected by environmental degradation. The judiciary has imposed positive obligations on the state to carry out its social duties as laid down in the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution. Although India does not have a constitutionally entrenched environmental right, the courts have interpreted the right to life proactively so as to include quality of life. The study concludes by examining possible applications of the principle of environmental justice for the protection of environmental rights in South Africa, assessing the law as it stands and exploring new avenues in the light of the Bill of Rights. In this respect the following guidelines are proposed by this study: o Environmental problems in South Africa must be placed within their specific historical and political context. Consequently environmental injustice must be understood as a form of inequity that impacts on people disproportionately on the basis of race and socio-economic status. The concept "environment" can therefore not be narrowly understood, whether it is being dealt with in the Constitution, legislation or common law. It must be recognised that the concept goes beyond ecosystems and that it includes a multiplicity of relationships, in many of which humans are the focal point. o Environmental justice claims in South Africa may best be framed as constitutional claims. Regard should be had not only to the environmental right in section 24 of the Constitution, but also to other rights that support the notion of environmental justice, such as the rights to life, equality and dignity. o Judicial activism is a key to the promotion of environmental justice. The judiciary plays an important role in ensuring that the state and other actors fulfil their obligation to respect, protect, promote and fulfil the rights in the Bill of Rights. Transformation requires a judiciary that is prepared to reconsider the traditional boundaries of the doctrine of separation of powers and to lay down directives for other branches of government, in particular the executive. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie proefskrif is om die beginsel "omgewingsgeregtigheid" te konsepsualiseer. Die studie poog dus om die betekenis van hierdie beginsel, sowel as die moontlike gebruik daarvan in die beskerming van omgewingsregte vas te stel in die lig van die Suid Afrikaanse Handves van Regte. Verder poog die studie om deur middel van regsvergelyking insigte te bekom uit voorbeelde in twee jurisdiksies, die Verenigde State van Amerika en Indië. "Omgewingsgeregtigheid" word in die eerste deel van die proefskrif gedefinieer. In die tweede deel word die wyse waarop omgewingsgeregtigheid uitdrukking vind in Amerikaanse en Indiese reg, sowel as in statutêre en administratiewe praktyk vergelykend geanaliseer. In die beoordeling van die Amerikaanse ervaring word tot die slotsom gekom dat die howe 'n ooglopende mate van selfbeheersing toon in die konsepsualisering van omgewingsgeregtigheid. As gevolg van die regsbank se nie-aktivistiese en formalistiese benadering, het dit in gebreke gebly om sistemiese omgewingsongelykhede aan te spreek, en om remedies te ontwikkel wat omgewingsgeregtigheid op 'n effektiewe en betekenisvolle wyse aanspreek. Die aktivistiese benadering van die Indiese regsbank aan die ander kant, lei tot meer effektiewe beskerming van die omgewing en diegene wat nadelig geaffekteer word deur omgewingsbeskadiging. Die regsbank plaas positiewe verpligtinge op die staat sodat die staat sy sosiale pligte kan nakom soos bepaal in die Direktiewe Beginselsin die Indiese Grondwet. Alhoewel Indië nie oor 'n grondwetlik verskanste omgewingsreg beskik nie, het die howe die reg op lewe pro-aktief geinterpreteer sodat dit ook die reg op lewenskwaliteit insluit. Die studie ondersoek verder die moontlike toepassings van die beginsel van omgewingsgeregtigheid vir die beskerming van omgewingsregte in Suid Afrika. Dit beoordeel die huidige reg en ondersoek nuwe rigtings in die lig van die Handves van Regte. In hierdie opsig word die volgende riglyne neergelê in hierdie studie: o Omgewingsprobleme in Suid Afrika moet binne 'n spesifieke historiese en politieke raamwerk geplaas word. Gevolglik moet omgewingsongeregtigheid verstaan word as 'n vorm van onbillikheid wat mense op grond van ras en sosioekonomiese status benadeel. D Die konsep "omgewing" behoort dus nie beperkend geinterpreteer te word nie, hetsy dit gebruik word in die grondwet, wetgewing of die gemene reg. Erkenning moet gegeeword daaraan dat die begrip wyer is as ekosisteme en dat dit 'n veelvoud van verhoudings insluit, baie waarvan mense die middelpunt vorm. D Eise rakende omgewingsgeregtigheid in Suid Afrika moet beskou word as grondwetlike eise. Nie net kom die omgewingsreg vervat in artike124 van die Grondwet ter sprake nie, maar ook aan ander regte soos die reg op lewe, gelykheid en menswaardigheid wat omgewingsgeregtigheid ondersteun. D Regterlike aktivisme is die sleutel tot die bevordering van omgewingsgregtigheid. Die regsbank speel 'n belangrike rol deurdat dit moet verseker dat die staat en ander rolspelers hul plig nakom om die regte in die Handves van Regte te respekteer, te beskerm en te bevorder. Transformasie vereis dus 'n regsbank wat bereid is om die tradisionele grense van die beginsel van magskeiding te heroorweeg en om riglyne neer te lê vir ander takke van die regering, spesifiek die uitvoerende gesag.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Indigenous communities have developed a wealth of knowledge, which plays a crucial role in providing leads for the use of genetic resources and bioprospecting. However, such knowledge is under increasing threat due to the misappropriation of the biological resources and associated traditional knowledge of indigenous communities, through both bioprospecting, as well as the inappropriate exercise of intellectual property rights. The internationally agreed Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) attempts to provide a bulwark against biopiracy and although it assists indigenous communities to regain some control, the CBD has proven inadequate in the protection of the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities. The subsequent Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Nagoya Protocol) attempts to address some of these limitations but unfortunately has its own shortcomings, as it was largely concluded on the basis of a compromise between developed and developing countries. This dissertation will undertake a critical analysis of the provisions of the CBD and Nagoya Protocol, with a view to establishing the level of protection these instruments afford indigenous communities. It will be shown that notwithstanding the drawbacks of both the CBD and Nagoya Protocol, they nevertheless represent major achievements in the journey to protect the genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge of indigenous communities. It is in this context that this dissertation will analyse South Africa’s Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) regime in relation to the protection it affords indigenous communities and in the light of the implementation challenges that such legislation presents. A particular focus will be on whether South Africa’s ABS legislation complies with the country’s international obligations relating to the protection of indigenous communities and whether South Africa’s approach to the protection of the genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge of indigenous communities, in the context of bioprospecting, is adequate or whether there exists potential for its enhancement. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

An increase in marine mammal stranding and die-off events has been observed along the California coast. The exact cause to explain for these recent events is unknown, but El Niño and harmful algal blooms are established sources for temporary decreases in marine mammal health. To determine whether El Niño could be causing and amplifying harmful algal blooms, particularly in Monterey Bay where they occur frequently, data was analyzed from the Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, California. Data analysis focused on California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), because they have the largest data set and are directly affected by harmful blooms from domoic acid. Results indicated that El Niño events could be significantly harming California sea lions in Monterey Bay during the fall season. Because agricultural runoff is a known factor in causing harmful algal blooms and Monterey Bay experiences them consistently, online research was conducted on agricultural activity, agricultural runoff and nitrogen contamination from fertilizer in the water-sheds surrounding Monterey Bay. Nitrogen contamination from agricultural use is a prominent issue, therefore, I proposed some possible solutions, including cap and trade, a water recycling plant, and eco-certification, to minimize nitrogen’s impact on the environment and wildlife while allowing farmers to continue using nitrogen on crops.

In South Africa thousands of unemployed people earn a living by recovering recyclable materials from the municipal stream, garbage bins and garbage dumps. In so doing their activities are also beneficial to the environment because raw materials and energy are saved and pollution is reduced. However, waste reclamation in South Africa seems not to be adequately regulated, supported nor formally recognised by authorities. This study aims to investigate the extent to which South African Environmental law enables and regulates waste reclamation, whether directly and/or indirectly, with a view to improving the regulatory policy and legislative framework pertaining to waste reclamation. In this regard the study considers key policy and legislation pertaining to waste management in South Africa. To this end the Minimum Requirementsfor Waste Disposal by Landfill as published by the then Department of Water Affairs and Forestry serve as a guideline for the formalisation and control of waste reclamation at landfills. However, there is a need to formulate regulations under NEM: WA to regulate waste reclamation inside and even outside landfills. Moreover, the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs also needs to formulate standard model waste reclamation by-laws which would be adapted by municipalities to suit local circumstances. The long term view of government is to phase out waste reclamation at landfills in favour of waste separation at source. In order to realise this objective it is important for government, especially at local level, to integrate waste reclaimers in the formal waste management programmes by virtue of their experience in recovery of recyclables from the waste stream, and these programmesmust be included in municipal IWMPs and IDPs for implementation. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The thesis presents an investigation of the direct and indirect impact of environmental legal principles on international nuclear law and the regulation of nuclear activities, seeking to offer an up-to-date material for decision-making institutions and society on the main challenges that are necessary to overcome in order to reach the situation where nuclear energy could in the most effective way contribute to the implementation of environmental aims and where the environment could be adequately protected against any risks of the possible transboundary damage caused by nuclear activities developed for peaceful purposes (the analysis carried out in the thesis adopts an ecocentric rather than anthropocentric approach). The environmental legal principles chosen as an object for the analysis are those that provide for the guidelines and directions for the development of the international norms of nuclear law as well as lay down the regime for protecting natural environment (environmental safeguards) and international liability for environmental damage caused as a result of nuclear activities (i.e., the principles of cooperation, sustainable development, prevention, precaution, polluter pays, and the principle of information). After defining the points of interaction between international environmental law and nuclear law, the analysis proceeds with the examination of problems related to the evolution of environmental legal principles and their perspectives in the area of the... [to full text] / Disertacijoje nagrinėjama tiesioginė ir netiesioginė aplinkos teisės principų įtaka tarptautinei branduolinei teisei ir branduolinės energetikos objektų reguliavimui, siekiant informuoti sprendimus priimančias institucijas ir visuomenę apie pagrindinius iššūkius, kuriuos reikia įveikti siekiant, kad branduolinė energetika kiek įmanoma veiksmingiau prisidėtų įgyvendinant aplinkosauginius tikslus, o aplinka būtų tinkamai apsaugota nuo taikiais tikslais vystomos branduolinės veiklos keliamos tarpvalstybinės žalos rizikos (analizės metu vyrauja ekocentrinis, o ne antropocentrinis požiūris). Analizės objektu pasirinkti tie aplinkos teisės principai, kurie numato gaires tarptautinėms branduolinės teisės normoms plėtotis, nustato gamtos apsaugos režimą (saugiklius) bei tarptautinę atsakomybę, atsirandančią dėl branduolinės energetikos objektų sukelto žalingo poveikio aplinkai (t.y. bendradarbiavimo, darnaus vystymosi, prevencijos, atsargumo, teršėjas moka ir informavimo principai). Nurodžius tarptautinės aplinkos teisės ir branduolinės teisės sąlyčio taškus, toliau nagrinėjamos problemos dėl aplinkos teisės principų raidos ir perspektyvų branduolinės energetikos objektų reglamentavimo srityje, pateikiama susijusi nacionalinių ir tarptautinių ginčų sprendimo institucijų dėl branduolinės energetikos objektų praktika, atsakoma į klausimą, kuris iš minėtų aplinkos teisės principų veikimo modelių – tiesioginis ar netiesioginis – yra veiksmingesnis siekiant įgyvendinti užsibrėžtus... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

Environmental impact assessment of projects in the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a horizontal tool of protection of the environment, based on principles of precaution and prevention and aimed at assessment of plans and programs, or projects. This thesis deals with assessment of projects only. At EU level, the legal basis for EIA of projects is provided for by the EIA Directive (Directive 2011/92/EU) which is expected to be amended in the near future. The thesis provides for an analysis of the EIA case law of the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU), identifies the main problems encountered by the Member States when implementing the EIA Directive, identifies the key principles established by the CJEU for interpretation of the EIA directive, and in the light of the above it identifies the main issues in the transposition in the Czech law. 1