<p>The evolutionary goal of individuals is reproduction and sexual selection favours traits improving reproductive success. When males invest less than females in offspring, males have potentially a higher reproductive rate than females. This typically results in sex-specific reproductive strategies of male-male competition and female choice of mating partner. Under polyandry, sexual selection can continue after copulation as sperm competition and cryptic female choice. This thesis focuses on male and female pre- and post-copulatory reproductive strategies in the promiscuous red junglefowl, <i>Gallus</i> <i>gallus ssp.</i>, and its domestic subspecies the domestic fowl, <i>Gallus gallus</i> <i>domesticus</i>. Males impose high re-mating rates on females, which triggers female resistance in copulations. In addition, when sexual harassment increases, females re-mate at times of day when male mating propensity is lower, to avoid intense sexual harassment. Males allocate sperm supplies differentially according to (i) variation in female polyandry and own competitive ability, (ii) earlier sperm investment in a female, and (iii) female reproductive quality, signalled by female comb size. Males also perform ‘aspermic’ copulations (i.e. copulations with no semen transfer), which inhibit polyandry and in turn reduce sperm competition. In mating opportunities with relatives, males do not avoid inbreeding. However, females avoid inbreeding before copulation through kin recognition and after copulation by selecting against related males’ sperm. These results show that selection on males to re-mate at higher rates than females and copulate indiscriminately according to partner relatedness, trigger counteracting female responses, creating the potential for sexual conflict over fertilisation. Teasing apart pre- and post-copulatory strategies and the contribution of each sex therefore becomes crucial in order to understand the evolution of reproductive strategies and the mechanisms affecting paternity.</p>

<p>When breeding wild species in captivity, the animals may gradually become more adapted to captivity and therefore less suited for reintroduction which is the ultimate goal for some species. This study measured the activity budget of European bison (<em>Bison bonasus</em>) in six enclosures in Sweden with the aim to find out how the characteristics of the enclosures – with and without pasture - influenced the activity budget. The results show that there were significant differences in the activity budget, i.e. the activity was higher in the enclosures with pasture than in enclosures with barren ground. However, since barren enclosures were smaller than naturalistic, it was not possible to exclude the effect of size. Judged from observations of bison in the wild, there seems to be a direct correlation between food availability and ranging, indicating that enclosure characteristics affect activity more than size. The bison foraged differently in the two enclosure categories, but the total amount of time spent on feeding did not differ. A feeding enrichment experiment showed to have more positive effects in the barren enclosures than in the naturalistic ones, as the amount of time of inactivity decreased in the former. Since the genetic characteristics of all Swedish bison are very similar, the differences between the two enclosure groups indicate that the animals still have the ability to respond appropriately to improved environmental quality. Hence the next step in the assessment of the suitability of these bison for release would be to study them during an acclimatisation program.</p>

<p>Det här arbetet syftar till att undersöka om och hur födoberikning kan stimulera vitörade silkesapor att utföra högre frekvenser av naturliga beteenden samt att se hur aktiva aporna är och om de frivilligt visar sig för publik på djurparken. Födoberikningen gick ut på att erbjuda aporna mat på ett mer naturligt sätt istället för att enbart ge dem maten i matskålar. Dessutom syftar arbetet till att erbjuda aporna en näringsmässigt korrekt sammansatt kost. Studien utfördes på två grupper av vitörade silkesapor på Parken Zoo i Eskilstuna under perioden juni till september år 2004. Undersökningen delades upp i tre perioder, under period 1 observerades aporna utan att någon födoberikning genomfördes. Under period 2 introducerades födoberikningen stegvis samtidigt som kostens sammansättning ändrades. Under period 3 var all födoberikning införd och kosten som erbjöds var näringsmässigt korrekt. Vår studie visar att frekvenserna av naturliga beteenden ökade vid födoberikning, det vill säga ätbeteende minskade, födosöksbeteende ökade och aggressiva/revir beteenden minskade. Socialt/övrigt beteende och förflyttning skilde sig åt mellan de två grupperna. Aporna blev mer aktiva och var mer synliga för publik under period 3. Vår matstudie visar att det är viktigt att utvärdera apornas kostintag på djurpark eftersom risken är stor att de inte erbjuds och äter rätt proportioner av olika näringsämnen.</p> / <p>The aim of this study is to examine whether and how food enrichment can stimulate the common marmoset to more frequently display natural behaviour patterns; also to see how active the monkeys are and if they voluntarily show themselves to the public in the zoo. The food enrichment meant offering food to the monkeys in a way more natural than simply providing it in bowls. In addition the aim is to provide a nutritionally balanced diet. The study was conducted on two groups of common marmosets in Parken Zoo in Eskilstuna from June 2004 to September 2004. The study was split into three periods. During period 1 the monkeys were observed without food enrichment. During period 2 food enrichment was introduced gradually while the diet changed. During period 3 all food enrichment was provided and the diet offered was nutritionally correct. Our study shows that natural behaviour became more frequent with food enrichment, that is, eating behaviour decreased, foraging behaviour increased and aggressive/territorial behaviour decreased. Social/other behaviour and motion differed between the two groups. The monkeys became more active and were more often visible to the public during period 3. Our feeding study shows the importance of evaluating the nutritional intake of the monkeys in a zoo, because of the risk that they are not offered or are not eating the right proportions of nutrients.</p>

<p>Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka om det fanns olika personlighetstyper hos mjölkkor av raserna SRB och SLB och om dessa personlighetstyper skilde sig mellan ras, ålder och vilken sida djuren stått på i lösdriften. Korna observerades i tre olika testmiljöer för att se huruvida konsistenta de var i deras beteenden: ostörda i lösdriften, vid mjölkning och med ett främmande objekt i lösdriften. Beteenden som studerades var normala beteenden, sociala beteenden, tramp och sparkningar vid mjölkning och interaktioner med det främmande objektet. Tolv beteendevariabler användes i en PCA (principal component analysis) och visade två komponenter som tillsammans kunde förklara 51,2 % av den totala variansen. Den första komponenten speglade aggression och extraversion, som ingår i medgörlighet och extraversion i den mänskliga femfaktorsmodellen. Den andra komponenten speglade ett mer introvert beteende och rädsla, som går under extraversion och neuroticism i samma modell. Oberoende T-test visade inga signifikanta skillnader mellan någon av komponenterna och ras eller sida i lösdriften p>0,05, däremot en tendens till skillnad mellan den första komponenten och ålder, där den äldre gruppen individer visade tydligare personlighetsdrag p<0.1. Tidigare studier har visat att personlighetsdimensioner som medgörlighet, neuroticism och extraversion ofta förekommer bland flera arter. Då olika personligheter hanterar stressfulla situationer på olika sätt, är detta ämne av stor vikt när det gäller förbättrandet av djurens välfärd.</p> / <p>The purpose of this study was to investigate if different personality dimensions existed in dairy cows of two breeds (SRB and Holstein) and if these personality dimensions differed between breed, age and how the animals were placed in the loose housing system. To investigate behavioural consistency, the cows were observed in three different situations: uninterrupted in their home pen, during milking and with a novel object in their home pen. Normal and social behaviour was observed as well as stepping and kicking during milking and interactions with the novel object. Twelve behavioural variables were used in a principal component analysis, which showed two components that together explained 51,2 % of the total variance. The first component reflected aggression and extraversion, which are included in agreeableness and extraversion in the human five-factor model. The second component reflected fear and introversion, which are included in neuroticism and extraversion in the same model. Independent-samples T test showed no significant differences between any of the components and breed or placement in the loose housing system p>0,05, however there was a tendency between the first component and age, where the older group showed a more defined personality p<0,1. Other studies have showed that personality dimensions such as agreeableness, neuroticism and extraversion often exist in several species. Different personalities cope with stressful situations in different ways, making this topic relevant to the improvement of animal welfare.</p>

In this thesis, I experimentally investigate feeding selectivity in fallow deer (Dama dama), with respect to plant secondary compounds, especially tannins, which can decrease the quality of foods. I found that fallow deer avoided foods with higher amounts of tannic acid and Quebracho tannin, even though the deer ate some high-tannin food. The food choice was strongly dependent on the context in which the food was presented, so that the food choice in relation to tannin content was relative rather than absolute. When high-tannin food occurred at low frequency, the deer ate proportionally less from this type of food, at least when the difference in tannin content between the two foods was large. A basic implication is that an unpalatable plant type could benefit from its unpalatability, especially when occurring at low frequency. In experiments with two patches, the finding of a stronger within- than between-patch selectivity was mirrored in associational effects. First, low-tannin, palatable food was more eaten when occurring in a high-tannin patch, which corresponds to neighbour contrast susceptibility. Second, high-tannin, unpalatable food in a less defended patch was less eaten, which corresponds to neighbour contrast defence. A proximate cause of the associational effects can be the presence of a simultaneous negative contrast, which was experimentally demonstrated in an additional study. Individual differences in selectivity were present early in life and were consistent over five years, and selectivity was correlated with foraging exploratory behaviour. The results from this thesis suggest that fallow deer are selective in their food choice with respect to tannins from the beginning, and that the frequency of occurrence of different foods, but also the distance between foods and the complexity of presentation, influence the food choice. It is also suggested that a foraging behavioural syndrome is present in mammalian herbivores.

The evolutionary goal of individuals is reproduction and sexual selection favours traits improving reproductive success. When males invest less than females in offspring, males have potentially a higher reproductive rate than females. This typically results in sex-specific reproductive strategies of male-male competition and female choice of mating partner. Under polyandry, sexual selection can continue after copulation as sperm competition and cryptic female choice. This thesis focuses on male and female pre- and post-copulatory reproductive strategies in the promiscuous red junglefowl, Gallus gallus ssp., and its domestic subspecies the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus domesticus. Males impose high re-mating rates on females, which triggers female resistance in copulations. In addition, when sexual harassment increases, females re-mate at times of day when male mating propensity is lower, to avoid intense sexual harassment. Males allocate sperm supplies differentially according to (i) variation in female polyandry and own competitive ability, (ii) earlier sperm investment in a female, and (iii) female reproductive quality, signalled by female comb size. Males also perform ‘aspermic’ copulations (i.e. copulations with no semen transfer), which inhibit polyandry and in turn reduce sperm competition. In mating opportunities with relatives, males do not avoid inbreeding. However, females avoid inbreeding before copulation through kin recognition and after copulation by selecting against related males’ sperm. These results show that selection on males to re-mate at higher rates than females and copulate indiscriminately according to partner relatedness, trigger counteracting female responses, creating the potential for sexual conflict over fertilisation. Teasing apart pre- and post-copulatory strategies and the contribution of each sex therefore becomes crucial in order to understand the evolution of reproductive strategies and the mechanisms affecting paternity.

When breeding wild species in captivity, the animals may gradually become more adapted to captivity and therefore less suited for reintroduction which is the ultimate goal for some species. This study measured the activity budget of European bison (Bison bonasus) in six enclosures in Sweden with the aim to find out how the characteristics of the enclosures – with and without pasture - influenced the activity budget. The results show that there were significant differences in the activity budget, i.e. the activity was higher in the enclosures with pasture than in enclosures with barren ground. However, since barren enclosures were smaller than naturalistic, it was not possible to exclude the effect of size. Judged from observations of bison in the wild, there seems to be a direct correlation between food availability and ranging, indicating that enclosure characteristics affect activity more than size. The bison foraged differently in the two enclosure categories, but the total amount of time spent on feeding did not differ. A feeding enrichment experiment showed to have more positive effects in the barren enclosures than in the naturalistic ones, as the amount of time of inactivity decreased in the former. Since the genetic characteristics of all Swedish bison are very similar, the differences between the two enclosure groups indicate that the animals still have the ability to respond appropriately to improved environmental quality. Hence the next step in the assessment of the suitability of these bison for release would be to study them during an acclimatisation program.

Det här arbetet syftar till att undersöka om och hur födoberikning kan stimulera vitörade silkesapor att utföra högre frekvenser av naturliga beteenden samt att se hur aktiva aporna är och om de frivilligt visar sig för publik på djurparken. Födoberikningen gick ut på att erbjuda aporna mat på ett mer naturligt sätt istället för att enbart ge dem maten i matskålar. Dessutom syftar arbetet till att erbjuda aporna en näringsmässigt korrekt sammansatt kost. Studien utfördes på två grupper av vitörade silkesapor på Parken Zoo i Eskilstuna under perioden juni till september år 2004. Undersökningen delades upp i tre perioder, under period 1 observerades aporna utan att någon födoberikning genomfördes. Under period 2 introducerades födoberikningen stegvis samtidigt som kostens sammansättning ändrades. Under period 3 var all födoberikning införd och kosten som erbjöds var näringsmässigt korrekt. Vår studie visar att frekvenserna av naturliga beteenden ökade vid födoberikning, det vill säga ätbeteende minskade, födosöksbeteende ökade och aggressiva/revir beteenden minskade. Socialt/övrigt beteende och förflyttning skilde sig åt mellan de två grupperna. Aporna blev mer aktiva och var mer synliga för publik under period 3. Vår matstudie visar att det är viktigt att utvärdera apornas kostintag på djurpark eftersom risken är stor att de inte erbjuds och äter rätt proportioner av olika näringsämnen. / The aim of this study is to examine whether and how food enrichment can stimulate the common marmoset to more frequently display natural behaviour patterns; also to see how active the monkeys are and if they voluntarily show themselves to the public in the zoo. The food enrichment meant offering food to the monkeys in a way more natural than simply providing it in bowls. In addition the aim is to provide a nutritionally balanced diet. The study was conducted on two groups of common marmosets in Parken Zoo in Eskilstuna from June 2004 to September 2004. The study was split into three periods. During period 1 the monkeys were observed without food enrichment. During period 2 food enrichment was introduced gradually while the diet changed. During period 3 all food enrichment was provided and the diet offered was nutritionally correct. Our study shows that natural behaviour became more frequent with food enrichment, that is, eating behaviour decreased, foraging behaviour increased and aggressive/territorial behaviour decreased. Social/other behaviour and motion differed between the two groups. The monkeys became more active and were more often visible to the public during period 3. Our feeding study shows the importance of evaluating the nutritional intake of the monkeys in a zoo, because of the risk that they are not offered or are not eating the right proportions of nutrients.

In recent years there has been an increased interest in measuring animal personality. It is argued that personality in animals is expressed through the behaviours they display. In this study personality has been investigated in a group of eight captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Data from focal samplings were analysed by using behavioural codings and the Five-factor model consisting of Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. The results revealed that the dolphins display both distinct personality differences as well as similarities in these factors. By calculating coefficients of association it was found that the dolphins also prefer the company of certain individuals over others. Knowledge of individual personality differences and its implications can be helpful in aspects such as management and reintroduction programs, evolution and genetics and in providing a complementary perspective to explain other behavioural and cognitive studies.

Primates have traditionally been viewed as having a poorly developed sense of smell. However, in recent years, studies have shown that at least some primate species use olfaction in a number of behaviors, and that they have a high olfactory sensitivity for various chemical classes of odorants. Using a two-choice instrumental conditioning paradigm, the present study assessed olfactor ydetection thresholds of three spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) for eight aliphatic alcohols and aldehydes, known as "green odors". With all odorants, the animals detected concentrations below 1 parts per million, with single individuals performing even better. The type of functional group present systematically affected olfactory detection thresholds, whereas the presence, position and configuration of a double bond did not. Compared to previously tested classes of odorants, thespider monkeys were not particularly sensitive to "green odors". Furthermore, they are lesssensitive for "green odors" compared to humans and mice. The present results suggest that neuroanatomical and genetic comparisons across species are poor predictors of olfactory sensitivity.