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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with functional impairments across the lifespan, including in the social domain. The cognitive processes underlying the disorder, as well these associated social impairments, are still being debated. This points to the need for introducing new approaches. Event perception, the process of perceiving ongoing streams of activity into whole events, provides a unique perspective on the cognitive and social deficits in ADHD and how they might be related. Event perception is a compelling approach due to its methodological advantages, theory, and originality. Therefore, the overarching goal of this dissertation is the use of event perception to elucidate cognitive underpinnings of ADHD and associated social impairments. In the background section of this dissertation, I review the evolution of scientific conceptualizations of ADHD as a disorder and its core features, including cognitive underpinnings. In addition, I highlight the cognitive components of the disorder, revealing a need for continued exploration of possible cognitive contributors. Next, I deliver an overview of the functional impairments associated with ADHD, with a special focus on social difficulties. Current theories regarding the factors that contribute to social impairment among those with ADHD are presented along with their methodological, conceptual and practical shortcomings. To address these flaws, I propose turning to event perception as a mechanism of social cognition. This section ends with a description of the guiding Event Segmentation Theory, links between event perception and ADHD, and potential event perception related contributions to the ADHD literature. The first study addresses event perception as a cognitive deficit among those with ADHD, while the second addresses the relationship between event perception, symptoms of ADHD, and social functioning. Results of the two studies point to event perception differences associated with ADHD, as well as symptoms of ADHD acting as mediators in the relationship between event perception and social impairment. As a first initiative to apply event perception to ADHD and its related impairments, these results contribute to current conceptualization of ADHD, as well as support the use of event perception to further inquiries into ADHD and development of future interventions. The dissertation is concluded with a broad discussion of the meaning of the results, as well as limitations, implications and future research directions.

Master of Science / Department of Psychological Sciences / Lester C. Loschky / Past research has argued that scene gist, a holistic semantic representation of a scene acquired within a single fixation, is extracted using purely feed-forward mechanisms. Many scene gist recognition studies have presented scenes from multiple categories in randomized sequences. We tested whether rapid scene categorization could be facilitated by priming from sequential expectations. We created more ecologically valid, first-person viewpoint, image sequences, along spatiotemporally connected routes (e.g., an office to a parking lot). Participants identified target scenes at the end of rapid serial visual presentations. Critically, we manipulated whether targets were in coherent or randomized sequences. Target categorization was more accurate in coherent sequences than in randomized sequences. Furthermore, categorization was more accurate for a target following one or more images within the same category than following a switch between categories. Likewise, accuracy was higher for targets more visually similar to their immediately preceding primes. This suggested that prime-to-target visual similarity may explain the coherent sequence advantage. We tested this hypothesis in Experiment 2, which was identical except that target images were removed from the sequences, and participants were asked to predict the scene category of the missing target. Missing images in coherent sequences were more accurately predicted than missing images in randomized sequences, and more predictable images were identified more accurately in Experiment 1. Importantly, partial correlations revealed that image predictability and prime-to-target visual similarity independently contributed to rapid scene gist categorization accuracy suggesting sequential expectations prime and thus facilitate scene recognition processes.

Perception is a fundamental function because it allows organisms to be in contact with the environment and adjust to environmental conditions. Humans also possess higher intellectual functions, which allow for elaborate handling of perceptually obtained information. The thesis concerns a distinction between an inferential ("cognitive") mode and a (direct-)perceptual mode of apprehension, and a notion of perceptual skill acquisition as a transition from the inferential to the perceptual mode. The mode distinction and the mode-transition model was formulated by Runeson, Juslin, and Olsson (2000) within the ecological direct-perception framework (Gibson, 1966, 1979). The modes of apprehension were investigated in an experimental paradigm that concerned visual perception of the relative mass of two colliding objects. The relative mass is specified by an optical variable in the collision movement pattern, which observers may pick up while functioning in the perceptual mode. However, novices often rely on other, nonspecifying, optical variables that may constitute cues that are used in the inferential mode (Runeson et al., 2000). Four tentative mode indicators were employed: participants' realism of confidence, introspective mode reports, amplitudes of brain event-related potentials, and response times. Generally, the results did not support the mode-transition model of skill acquisition. Furthermore, results suggested that reliance both on the specifying and nonspecifying variables might have occurred either in the inferential or in the perceptual mode. However, the mode indicators may not have captured mode as intended. For instance, the discriminability of used optical variables, and not the mode of apprehension, may have affected both amplitudes of event-related potentials and mode reports. It is argued that the mode-transition model and the distinction between two modes of apprehension should be further investigated employing other methodologies, and, furthermore, that the mode distinction has a place within an ecological framework.

Learning relational terms such as verbs and prepositions is fundamental to language development. To learn relational words, children must first dissect and process dynamic event components, and then uncover how the particular language they are learning encodes these constructs. Building on a new area of research, this dissertation investigated two event components, figure (i.e., the moving entity) and ground (i.e., the stationary setting) that are central to learning relational words. In particular, we examine how English- and Japanese-reared infants process figures and grounds in nonlinguistic events and how language learning interacts with their conceptualization of these constructs. Four studies were designed to probe our questions. Study 1 examined English-reared infants' ability to form nonnative ground categories encoded only in Japanese. For example, "crossing a road," which extends in a line and is bounded, is expressed differently than "crossing a field" that extends in a plane and is unbounded. We found that infants can detect the geometry of the ground and form a nonnative ground category. Study 2 indicated that the path of an action plays a role in construing these categorical ground distinctions such that without the bounded paths infants do not differentiate between grounds. Study 3 demonstrated that even though infants notice figures and grounds in static representations of the dynamic events (even earlier for the ground discrimination), the Japanese categorical ground differentiation no longer emerged. In the last set of studies, we showed that despite the sensitivity to the event structure and categorical ground distinctions in dynamic events by both English- and Japanese-reared infants (Study 4a), only Japanese toddlers retained these categorical distinctions (Study 4b). Overall, these results suggest that 1) infants distinguish between figures and grounds in events with differential attention to static and dynamic displays; 2) before learning much about their native language infants form nonnative event categories; and 3) the process of learning language appears to shift earlier formed categorical boundaries. / Psychology

A representation of visual motion convenient for recognition shouldsmake prominent the qualitative differences among simple motions. Wesargue that the first stage in such a motion representation is to makesexplicit boundaries that we define as starts, stops, and forcesdiscontinuities. When one of these boundaries occurs in motion, humansobservers have the subjective impression that some fleeting,ssignificant event has occurred. We go farther and hypothesize that onesof the subjective motion boundaries is seen if and only if one of oursdefined boundaries occurs. We enumerate all possible motion boundariessand provide evidence that they are psychologically real.

What are the representational differences between situations that do and do not map well onto previous experiences? This research offers some answers to this question by having participants compare two narratives that were either reality or fantasy-based. Fantasy-based narratives, with their deviations from reality, were considered similar to situations that do not map well onto previous experience. The concept of systematicity, where high-order relations constrain low-order relations was used to describe such situations (Bowdle & Gentner, 1997). Compared to a reality-based narrative, extra processing is required to maintain a systematic representation of a fantasy-based narrative. One can reduce the amount of processing needed by grounding that fantasy-based narrative in a reality-based or another fantasy-based narrative. Comparative judgments were used to measure processing differences. In three studies, participants read two narratives and then performed a series of comparative judgments derived from retrospective duration judgment (Block, 1992), event-structure perception (Zacks & Tversky, 2001), and structure-mapping theory (Gentner, 1983) research. For example, one of the comparative judgments adopted from structure-mapping theory was the rating of directional similarity, or the similarity rating of the second-read narrative relative to the first-read narrative. Directional similarity was proposed to increase as the amount of processing associated with maintaining a systematic representation of the first and second-read narrative decreased. For Studies 1A-E, the directional similarity was higher for the RealityFirst condition (reality read first) than the FantasyFirst condition (fantasy read first). These results are interpreted as indicated that the increase in directional similarity for the RealityFirst conditions was due to structure lending from the first-read reality-based narrative and that the decrease in directional similarity for the FantasyFirst conditions was due to representational disruption from the first-read fantasy-based narrative. Results also indicated that comparing two reality-based narratives (Studies 2A-B) was similar to comparing two fantasy-based narratives (Studies 3A-B) for the directional similarity and directional duration judgments, but differed for the listing of commonalities and differences and the segmentation of the narrative event structure. According to the systematicity principle (Gentner, 1989), people prefer mappings between two representations that form coherent and highly interconnected structures. The results from Studies 1A-E demonstrate a clear directional preference for the RealityFirst conditions. The results, therefore, indicate that it was more difficult to utilize the inherent structure of the narratives for the FantasyFirst conditions then the RealityFirst conditions. Comparing the results across the final set of studies, the increase in segmentation and increase in word count for the commonalities and differences were clear indications that participants still had difficulties in utilizing the structure of the narratives when both narratives being compared were fantasy-based (Studies 3A-B). In operationalizing systematicity with fantasy and reality-based narratives, I have been able to extend our understanding of how structure-lending can occur between these two narrative types. The results, therefore, extend our understanding of the structural alignment approach to narrative comparisons. But, since this research also involves the theoretical integration of the structure alignment approach (directional similarity and listing of commonalities and differences) with theories of time estimation (directional duration), event structure representation (segmentation), the basic findings herein should be applicable to comparisons ranging from auditory narrative structures to simple lexical units (e.g., unicorns vs. horses) to visual depicted objects (e.g., aliens vs. humans), even if the current set of studies described in this article involved only the comparison of written narrative structure. / text

A critical function of perception is the organization of temporally spaced input. This is accomplished through grouping, a process by which within-group elements are integrated with one another to form a cohesive unit. Grouping also requires boundaries to set off within-group elements from unrelated stimuli. In the temporal domain, grouping may be accomplished through use of an implicit working memory system that connects temporally spaced information. Temporal group boundaries may be created by reductions in the default integrative processes of this memory system. The present experiments probed integration strength by embedding priming tasks within temporal groups (i.e., events). Because priming also draws upon implicit working memory, priming strength should reflect the strength of integration. If modulation of temporal integration is responsible for grouping, this should be manifested as a reduction of priming across boundaries. Irrelevant feature priming tasks were used to assess integration strength. Participants responded to one of two independently varying object features. In this form of priming, change consistency of relevant and irrelevant features produces faster reaction times, resulting in a crossed interaction. This interaction served as a meter for the strength of temporal integration. The experiments included a variety of temporal grouping manipulations. Experiments involving rhythmic groups, spatial shifts, rotations, pitch, and timbre, as well as higher-level conceptual shifts, demonstrated reduced priming in across-boundary conditions. Both visual and auditory events were used, and experiments demonstrated that viewers’ interpretation of a scene contributed to the observed effects. Temporal integration does appear to be reduced at certain event boundaries, suggesting that this may be the general manner in which temporal grouping is accomplished. Motion change, a boundary from event segmentation research, did not reduce priming, indicating that the process presently under study differs from that studied using explicit segmentation procedures. The reduction of integration may correspond to a subjective, amodal experience of separation. The present technique may therefore offer an objective, implicit method to assess this sense of separation. Using this method, it is possible to reliably determine when people are experiencing temporal group boundaries even when they are not deliberately attending to them. / text

The belief that intentions are hidden away in the minds of individuals has been circulating for many years. Theories of indirect perception, such as the Theory of Mind, have since been developed to help explain this phenomenon. Conversely, research in the field of human kinematics and event perception have also given rise to theories of direct perception. The purpose of the study was to determine if intentionality can be directly perceived rather than requiring inferential processes. Prior research regarding kinematics of cooperative and competitive movements have pointed toward direct perception, demonstrating participants can accurately judge a movement as cooperative or competitive by simply observing point-light displays of the isolated arm movements. Considering competitive movements are often performed faster than cooperative movements, speed was perturbed for the purpose of this study to determine if participants are relying on cues or if they can indeed perceive a unique kinematic pattern that corresponds to intentionality. Judging the clips correctly despite perturbation would suggest perception is direct. Additionally, we hypothesized judgments accuracy would be higher in the presence of two actors pointing to the use of interpersonal affordances. Twenty-eight participants from the University of Central Florida were asked to judge 40 clips presented in random order including: normal or perturbed competitive actions with one or two actors; normal or perturbed cooperative actions with one or two actors. Percent correct and reaction time data were analyzed on SPSS using a repeated measures ANOVA. Results rejected the hypothesis that social perception is direct and supported indirect perception, indicating participants relied on cues to make judgments, and provided potential support for the interpersonal affordance hypothesis.

本研究的目的在整合現今較受重視的認知取向憂鬱理論，探討其因果機制及重要變項，以架構出較折衷的認知性憂鬱因果模式，並以結構方程式模式技術予以驗証。 　　文中共探討了Abramson的無望感理論、Bandura的自我規範論、Beck的自我基模論、Becker的自我貶低論、Ingram自我焦注論、Rehm的自我控制論、Seligman的無助感理論，共歸納出負向事件知覺、因應信念、負向自我基模、自我評估知覺、逆境歸因、個人歸因、無望感、自尊感、認知性憂鬱等九個潛在變項。 　　研究過程中首先分析了不同性別及憂鬱程度的受試者在各個測量變項上的差異情形，並以兩階段的方式進行了理論模式的適配性考驗，再針對考驗結果進行討論，形成進一步的假設，並提出理論架構、研究方法、實際應用上的建議，最後說明本研究面臨之限制，以及後續研究可改進方向。 　　下面是本研究主要的研究結論： 　　一、女性大學生較男性大學生的憂鬱程度為高，且具有憂鬱現象的人數也較多；男性則在個人自我意識上較女性強。 　　二、高憂鬱組在偏差態度、過度類化、完美主義、特質歸因、無望感上都較低憂鬱來得高；在問題解決信念、成功預期、自我概念、自尊感上都較低憂鬱組來得低。 　　三、因果模式中被支持的因果關係如下： 　　　（一）負向事件知覺對負向自我基模具有正向的因果關係。 　　　（二）自我評估知覺對因應信念具有正向的因果關係。 　　　（三）因應信念對負向自我基模具有負向的因果關係。 　　　（四）負向自我基模對逆境歸因其有正向的因果關係。 　　　（五）負向自我基模對個人歸因具有正向的因果關係。 　　　（六）因應信念對逆境歸因具有負向的因果關係。 　　　（七）因應信念對個人歸因具有正向的因果關係。 　　　（八）逆境歸因對無望感具有正向的因果關係。 　　　（九）無望感對自尊感具有負向的因果關係。 　　　（十）負向自我基模對認知性憂鬱具有正向的因果關係。 　　四、以八個潛在變項對高低憂鬱組對行區別函數分析，結果正確率達89.61%，其中以無望感、自尊感、逆境歸因、個人歸因等四個變項最有區辨力。 　　五、以探索性因素分析發現，負向歸因風格可區分為三個向度：內在（影響內在歸因、特質歸因、控制歸因）、穩定歸因（影響穩定歸因及控制歸因）、概括歸因；在穩定歸因與概括歸因之間存有正相關。 / Purpose of this thesis was to integrate several depression theories which are mainly focusing on cognitive approach, to argue for the causes-result mechanism of depression and to find the improtant varibles related to depression develepment. the author also wanted to construct prosper frame of cognitive depression. There are seven theories including Abramson's hopelessness theory, Bandura's self-regulation theory, Beck's self-schema Becker's self-degorate theory, Ingram's self-focusing theory, Rehm's self-control theory, and Seligman's helplessness theory was discussed in this thesis, and nine important varibles including depression, negative event perception, coping belief, self-appraival perception, negative self-schema, personal attributional style, aversive attributional style, low