Cette thèse explore l'analyse de l'activité électrique du cerveau. Un défi important de ces signaux est leur grande variabilité à travers différents essais et/ou différents sujets. Nous proposons une nouvelle méthode appelée "adaptive waveform learning" (AWL). Cette méthode est suffisamment générale pour permettre la prise en compte de la variabilité empiriquement rencontrée dans les signaux neuroélectriques, mais peut être spécialisée afin de prévenir l'overfitting du bruit. La première partie de ce travail donne une introduction sur l'électrophysiologie du cerveau, présente les modalités d'enregistrement fréquemment utilisées et décrit l'état de l'art du traitement de signal neuroélectrique. La principale contribution de cette thèse consiste en 3 chapitres introduisant et évaluant la méthode AWL. Nous proposons d'abord un modèle de décomposition de signal général qui inclut explicitement différentes formes de variabilité entre les composantes de signal. Ce modèle est ensuite spécialisé pour deux applications concrètes: le traitement d'une série d'essais expérimentaux segmentés et l'apprentissage de structures répétées dans un seul signal. Deux algorithmes sont développés pour résoudre ces problèmes de décomposition. Leur implémentation efficace basée sur des techniques de minimisation alternée et de codage parcimonieux permet le traitement de grands jeux de données.Les algorithmes proposés sont évalués sur des données synthétiques et réelles contenant des pointes épileptiformes. Leurs performances sont comparées à celles de la PCA, l'ICA, et du template-matching pour la détection de pointe. / This thesis investigates the analysis of brain electrical activity. An important challenge is the presence of large variability in neuroelectrical recordings, both across different subjects and within a single subject, for example, across experimental trials. We propose a new method called adaptive waveform learning (AWL). It is general enough to include all types of relevant variability empirically found in neuroelectric recordings, but can be specialized for different concrete settings to prevent from overfitting irrelevant structures in the data. The first part of this work gives an introduction into the electrophysiology of the brain, presents frequently used recording modalities, and describes state-of-the-art methods for neuroelectrical signal processing. The main contribution of this thesis consists in three chapters introducing and evaluating the AWL method. We first provide a general signal decomposition model that explicitly includes different forms of variability across signal components. This model is then specialized for two concrete applications: processing a set of segmented experimental trials and learning repeating structures across a single recorded signal. Two algorithms are developed to solve these models. Their efficient implementation based on alternate minimization and sparse coding techniques allows the processing of large datasets. The proposed algorithms are evaluated on both synthetic data and real data containing epileptiform spikes. Their performances are compared to those of PCA, ICA, and template matching for spike detection.

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier le développement du système lexico-sémantique chez les enfants monolingues et bilingues. La question posée est la suivante : quand et comment les significations des mots commencent à être reliées entre elles et à s'intégrer dans un système sémantique interconnecté. Dans un premier temps, trois études ont été menées chez des enfants monolingues français. L'Etude 1, a pour but d'observer si les mots sont organisés selon des liens taxonomiques (e.g., cochon - cheval). L'Etude 2 explore si l'effet d'amorçage sémantique est sous-tendu par des mécanismes cognitifs, comme les processus d'activation automatique et contrôlé. Puis enfin, l'Etude 3 observe si les mots sont organisés en fonction de leur distance de similarité sémantique (e.g., vache - mouton versus vache - cerf). Dans un deuxième temps, deux études ont été conduites chez des enfants apprenant deux langues simultanément. L'Etude 4 vise à déterminer si les mots sont taxonomiquement liés dans chacune des langues. L'Etude 5 explore si les mots présentés dans une langue activent leurs représentations sémantiques dans l'autre langue et vice versa. Dans le but de répondre à ces questions, le traitement lexico-sémantique a été étudié en utilisant deux techniques : l'eye-tracking et les potentiels évoqués (PEs). Ces deux techniques enregistrent lors de la présentation des mots des réponses comportementales (Etude 3) et neuronales (Etude 1, 2, 4 et 5) de haute résolution temporelle. Les Etudes 1 et 2 montrent que chez les monolingues les mots sont liés taxonomiquement à l'âge de 18 et 24 mois. Durant le développement du langage, les deux processus d'activation automatique et contrôlé sont impliqués dans le traitement des mots (Etude 2). L'Etude 3 montre qu'à 24 mois, les mots sont organisés dans le système lexico-sémantique en développement selon la distance des similarités sémantiques. L'Etude 4 montre que chez les enfants bilingues, le traitement sémantique ne diffère pas selon les deux langues, mais la topographie des PEs varie selon la langue traitée. L'Etude 5 montre que les mots présentés dans une langue activent leurs représentations sémantiques dans la deuxième langue et vice versa. Toutefois, la topographie des PEs est modulée selon la direction de traduction. Ces résultats suggèrent que l'acquisition de deux langues, bien qu'elle soit très précoce, requière deux ressources neuronales bien distinctes, sous-tendant ainsi le traitement lexico-sémantique des langues dominante et non-dominante. / The present doctoral research explored the developing lexical-semantic system in monolingual and bilingual toddlers. The question of how and when word meanings are first related to each other and become integrated into an interconnected semantic system was investigated. Three studies were conducted with monolingual French learning children which aimed at exploring how words are organized, that is, according to taxonomic relationships (e.g., pig - horse) and to semantic similarity distances between words (e.g., cow - sheep versus cow - deer), and whether cognitive mechanisms, such as automatic activation and controlled processes, underlie priming effects. An additional two studies conducted with children learning two languages simultaneously, aimed at determining, first, whether taxonomically related word meanings, in each of the two languages, are processed in a similar manner. The second goal was to explore whether words presented in one language activate words in another language, and vice versa. In an attempt to answer these questions, lexical-semantic processing was explored by two techniques: eye-tracking and event-related potentials (ERPs) techniques. Both techniques provide high temporal resolution measures of word processing but differ in terms of responses. Eye-movement measurements (Study III) reflect looking preferences in response to spoken words and their time-course, whereas ERPs reflect implicit brain responses and their activity patterns (Study I, II, IV, and V). Study I and II revealed that words are taxonomically organized at 18 and 24-month-olds. Both automatic and controlled processes were shown to be involved in word processing during language development (Study II). Study III revealed that at 24-month-olds, categorical and feature overlap between items underpin the developing lexical-semantic system. That is, lexical-items in each semantic category are organized according to graded similarity distances. Productive vocabulary skills influenced word recognition and were related to underlying cognitive mechanisms. Study IV revealed no differences in terms of semantic processing in the bilinguals¿ two languages, but the ERP distribution across the scalp varied according to the language being processed. Study V showed that words presented in one language activate their semantic representations in the second language and the other way around. The distribution of the ERPs depended, however, on the direction of translation. The results suggest that even early dual language experience yields distinct neural resources underlying lexical-semantic processing in the dominant and non-dominant languages during language acquisition.

Introdução: O P300 é um potencial evocado auditivo que ocorre aproximadamente 300 milissegundos (ms) após a apresentação do estímulo. Geralmente, é evocado ao se utilizar o paradigma tradicional, no qual são apresentados dois estímulos perceptivelmente diferentes: um estímulo frequente (85%) e um estímulo raro (15%). Os indivíduos são orientados a indicar, de alguma maneira, a quantidade de estímulos raros que perceberam durante a realização do exame. O P300 é considerado um potencial endógeno, pois ocorre devido a um evento cognitivo (decisão da ocorrência do estímulo raro). Contudo, alguns estudos mostraram que as características acústicas do estímulo podem interferir no potencial, evidenciando uma contribuição exógena ou sensorial para evocar a resposta. Essas implicações endógenas e exógenas para evocar o P300 ainda não foram totalmente definidas. A avaliação desses aspectos específicos pode ajudar a identificar os geradores desse potencial. Objetivo: verificar o efeito da contribuição endógena e exógena para obtenção do P300, utilizando paradigma tradicional e o paradigma de omissão. Métodos: participaram desse estudo 30 indivíduos jovens adultos, normo-ouvintes sem alteração neurológica ou psiquiátrica aparente. Os indivíduos foram avaliados com o paradigma tradicional (estímulo frequente: 800 Hz; estímulo raro 1200 Hz) e com o paradigma de omissão (estímulo frequente: 800 Hz; estímulo raro: ausência de som). Cada orelha foi avaliada separadamente por ambos os paradigmas na intensidade de 80 dBNPS. Foram apresentados 300 estímulos (45 raros) em cada estimulação. Para a obtenção do P300, foi utilizado o equipamento \"Neuroscan Stim2\" com 12 eletrodos ativos no escalpo, colocados nas seguintes posições: FPz, F4, Fz, F3, C4, Cz, C3, CP6, CP5, P4, Pz e P3. O maior pico após o complexo N1-P2-N2 foi considerado como P300. A amplitude foi medida considerando a linha de base do intervalo pré-estímulo, enquanto a latência foi medida no maior pico positivo. Nesse estudo, foi utilizada a Análise de Variância (ANOVA) com medidas repetidas. Foram realizados mapas topográficos do escalpo para ambas as estimulações. Resultados: para todos os 12 eletrodos analisados nesse estudo, a média da latência em milissegundos foi significantemente menor, e a média da amplitude foi significantemente maior para o paradigma tradicional quando comparado ao paradigma de omissão. Além disso, a morfologia da onda foi mais bem definida para o paradigma tradicional. Os mapas topográficos para ambos os paradigmas mostraram uma ativação mais generalizada e mais positiva na região centro-parietal, indicando que as mesmas áreas foram ativadas em ambos os paradigmas. Conclusão: o presente estudo demonstrou que o estímulo acústico, ausente no paradigma de omissão, influencia a latência, amplitude e morfologia da onda, evidenciando uma contribuição exógena/sensorial para obtenção do potencial / Introduction: The P300 is an auditory evoked potential that occurs approximately 300 ms after the stimulus presentation. It is usually elicited by a traditional paradigm in which two perceptually different stimuli are randomly presented with different proportions - one is frequent (85%) and the other is rare (15%). The tested individual is instructed to somehow indicate the amount of rare stimuli heard. According to the literature, P300 is considered an endogenous potential since it occurs in response to a cognitive event (i.e. decision of the occurrence or not of the rare stimulus). However, few studies have shown that the acoustic characteristics of the stimuli might influence the potential, evidencing some exogenous or sensorial contribution to the response formation. The implications that endogenous and exogenous contributions have to eliciting the P300 are not fully understood yet. The assessment of their specific roles would help to identify the P300 generators. Objective: To verify the effects of the endogenous and exogenous contribution to obtain/elicit the P300 using both the traditional and the omission paradigms. Methods: Thirty normal hearing young adults, without known neurological or psychiatric disorders, participated in this study. The individuals were assessed using P300 elicited by the traditional paradigm (frequent stimulus: 800 Hz; rare stimulus: 1200Hz) and by the omission paradigm (frequent stimulus: 800 Hz; rare stimulus: absence of sound). Both paradigms were presented to one ear at a time, at 80dBSPL, and 300 stimuli (45 rare) were presented in each stimulation. The \"Neuroscan Stim2\" was used to obtain the P300 with 12 active electrodes fixed at the following positions: FPz, F4, Fz, F3, C4, Cz, C3, CP6, CP5, P4, Pz e P3. The largest peak after the N1-P2-N2 complex was considered the P300. Its amplitude was measured considering the pre-stimulation response baseline, while its latency was measured at the most positive peak. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures was used in this study. Topographic maps from the scalp to both paradigms were also analyzed. Results: To all 12 electrodes positions analyzed in this study, the mean latency (ms) was significantly earlier and the mean amplitude (?V) was significantly larger for the traditional paradigm compared to the omission paradigm. Also, better wave morphology was obtained for the traditional paradigm. The topographic maps to both paradigms has shown more generalized and positive activation at the centro-parietal region, indicating that the same brain areas were involved in both paradigms. Conclusion: The current study has demonstrated that the acoustic stimulus, absent on the omission paradigm, have an impact on the wave formation in respect to its latency, amplitude and morphology, evidencing the influence of sensorial information to the P300

Ce qui caractérise principalement le syndrome de Gilles de la Tourette (SGT), c’est la présence de tics moteurs et vocaux chez les individus qui en sont atteints. Toutefois, les tics ne sont que la pointe de l’iceberg pour plusieurs patients. Le SGT s’accompagne souvent de troubles concomitants. Les plus fréquents sont le trouble obsessionnel-compulsif et le trouble du déficit de l’attention avec ou sans hyperactivité. De plus, certaines études neuropsychologiques ont rapporté que les patients atteints du SGT présentaient des capacités d’inhibition réduites, ce qui seraient directement associées à la difficulté de contrôler les tics. Toutefois, plusieurs résultats contradictoires ont été publiés à ce sujet. Aussi, plusieurs hypothèses ont été avancées pour expliquer la génération des tics. Parmi celles-ci, on retrouve notamment certaines études qui ont identifié une suractivité des régions motrices du cerveau. Encore ici, il n’existe pas de conclusion définitive au sein de la littérature. On ne peut guérir du SGT, mais il existe plusieurs traitements qui permettent de diminuer la sévérité des symptômes. La pharmacothérapie est généralement efficace, mais s’accompagne souvent d’effets secondaires indésirables. La thérapie cognitive-comportementale s’avère est une avenue de traitement intéressante, car elle n’entraîne pas d’effets secondaires sur le plan physique. Bien que son efficacité ait été maintes fois démontrée, on ne connaît toujours pas les mécanismes neuronaux impliqués dans son fonctionnement. L’objectif général de cette thèse était de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement cognitif des patients atteints du SGT et d’identifier les substrats neurobiologiques qui sous-tendent ces fonctions. Nous souhaitions observer comment ces fonctions évoluent suite à une thérapie cognitive-comportementale permettant de diminuer les tics. Cet objectif général a été divisé en trois volets. Le premier volet visait à mieux comprendre et à quantifier les déficits d’inhibition retrouvés au sein du SGT, ainsi que les facteurs qui les modulent. Nous voulions également identifier les corrélats électrophysiologiques des capacités d’inhibition. Le deuxième volet concernait les processus de préparation et d’exécution des mouvements et leur lien avec la symptomatologie du SGT. Dans le troisième volet, nous avons investigué l’impact d’une thérapie cognitive-comportementale sur le fonctionnement cérébral des patients atteints du SGT. Nous avons tenté également d’identifier des prédicteurs du succès thérapeutique. Pour répondre à ces objectifs, nous avons d’abord réalisé une méta-analyse pour déterminer si les patients atteints du SGT présentaient des déficits d’inhibition et pour comprendre quels facteurs influençaient les capacités d’inhibition. À l’aide des potentiels évoqués, nous avons aussi évalué les corrélats électrophysiologiques des capacités d’inhibition (P300 No-Go) à l’aide d’une tâche de compatibilité stimulus-réponse qui incluait une composante No-Go. Nous avons aussi évalué les corrélats électrophysiologiques des processus de préparation et d’exécution motrice (sLRP et rLRP) durant cette même tâche. Finalement, nous avons investigué comment une thérapie cognitive-comportementale pouvait modifier l’activité du cerveau, à la fois durant la tâche de compatibilité stimulus-réponse (sLRP et rLRP) et durant une tâche oddball (P300; onde positive apparaissant environ 300 ms après la présentation d’un stimulus et associée à l’évaluation et à la catégorisation des stimuli). Nos résultats ont d’abord démontré que les patients atteints du SGT présentaient des déficits d’inhibition durant les tâches de Stroop, de complétion de phrases, de tracement de cercles, et la Continuous Performance Task. Toutefois, la performance durant les tâches de compatibilité stimulus-réponse et Go/No-Go était quant à elle normale. La présence d’un TDAH ainsi que des tics plus sévères étaient associés à des déficits d’inhibition plus importants. Notre étude électrophysiologique a révélé une P300 No-Go plus ample au niveau frontal chez les patients atteints du SGT, en comparaison avec des sujets sains. Ensuite, dans les conditions compatibles et incompatibles, les patients atteints du SGT ont présenté un délai relatif à l’amorce du sLRP ainsi qu’une plus grande amplitude du rLRP, suggérant ainsi un délai quant à la préparation des mouvements, ainsi qu’une plus grande activité des aires motrices du cerveau lors de l’exécution des mouvements. Cette activité s’est toutefois normalisée suite à la thérapie. La latence de l’amorce du sLRP incompatible combinée à l’amplitude de la N200 (onde négative apparaissant environ 200 ms après la présentation d’un stimulus et associée au contrôle cognitif) incompatible ont permis de prédire 43% de la variance associée à la diminution des tics après le traitement. Finalement, nous avons aussi observé que la thérapie permettait une normalisation de la P300 dans une tâche oddball, ce qui suggère que davantage de ressources cognitives sont désormais mobilisées dans les processus de mémoire de travail. Cette normalisation était localisée au niveau du cortex pariétal. Toutefois, l’activité cérébrale mesurée durant cette tâche ne permettait pas de prédire le succès thérapeutique. Nous avons donc démontré que les patients atteints du SGT présentaient un patron d’activité corticale différent de celui des participants contrôles, en lien avec les fonctions motrices et l’inhibition. Les changements relatifs à la symptomatologie du SGT induits par la thérapie cognitive-comportementale se reflètent aussi au niveau du fonctionnement cérébral des patients, où certaines modifications spécifiques peuvent être vues. / Tourette syndrome (TS) is mainly characterized by the presence of motor and vocal tics. However, tics are just the tip of the iceberg for many patients. TS often comes with concomitant disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In addition, some neuropsychological studies have reported that TS patients show diminished inhibitory functions, which could be reflected in an incapacity to inhibit tics. However, no consensus has been reached on the matter of inhibitory functions in TS. Also, several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the generation of tics. Some studies that have identified overactivity of motor regions of the brain as a cause of tic generation. Here again, there is no definitive conclusion in the literature. While TS cannot be fully cured, several treatment options exist. These treatments have been shown to reduce tic severity. Pharmacotherapy is usually effective in most patients but is often accompanied by unwanted side effects. Cognitive-behavioral therapy was found to be an interesting treatment avenue since it does not cause physical side effects. Although its effectiveness has been demonstrated many times, its neural mechanisms are still poorly understood. The objective of this thesis was to give a better understanding of the cognitive functioning of TS patients and to investigate the neurofunctional substrates underlying these functions. We also wanted to evaluate the impact of a cognitive-behavioral therapy on these functions. This general objective was divided into three specific objectives. The first objective was to better understand inhibitory deficits found in TS. We also wanted to identify the electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory functions. The second objectives concerned movement preparation and execution processes, as well as the link between these processes and the symptomatology of TS. For the third objective, we investigated the impact of a cognitive-behavioral therapy on the brain function of TS patients and tried to identify predictors of treatment outcome. To this end, we first performed a meta-analysis of inhibitory functions in TS patients. This meta-analysis first aimed to determine if TS patients truly exhibited inhibitory deficits, and then to understand the factors influencing such deficits. Using event-related potentials, we also evaluated the electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory function (P300 No-Go) using a stimulus-response compatibility task that included a No-Go component. We also evaluated the electrophysiological correlates of motor preparation and execution processes (sLRP and rLRP) during the same task. Finally, we investigated how cognitive-behavioral therapy could alter brain activity, both during the stimulus-response compatibility task (sLRP and rLRP) and during an oddball task (P300; a positive wave peaking approximately 300 ms after stimuls onset and associated to stimulus evaluation and categorization). Our results first showed that TS patients had inhibitory deficits during the Stroop task, sentence completion paradigm, circle tracing task, and the Continuous Performance Task. The performance during the stimulus-response compatibility and Go/No-Go compatibility tasks was however normal. The concomitant presence of ADHD as well as more severe tics were associated with greater inhibitory deficits. Our electrophysiological study revealed a larger frontal No-Go P300 in TS patients. Then, in compatible and incompatible conditions, TS patients presented a delayed sLRP onset, as well as a larger rLRP peak. This suggests a delay in movement preparation, as well as an overactivation of motor areas during movement execution. These measures were however normalized following cognitive-behavioral therapy. The latency of the incompatible sLRP onset and the incompatible N200 (a negative wave peaking approximately 200 ms after stimuls onset and associated to cognitive control) amplitude predicted 43% of the variance associated with the decrease in tic severity after treatment. Finally, we also observed that the therapy allowed a normalization of the P300 in an oddball task, which suggests that more cognitive resources are now mobilized by working memory processes. This normalization was localized to the parietal cortex. However, brain activity measured during this task was not predictive of treatment outcome. With regards to motor function and inhibition, TS patients display a pattern of cortical activity that differs from that of control participants. Changes in the symptomatology of TS induced by cognitive-behavioral therapy are also reflected in the cerebral functioning of patients, where specific normalization in brain activity can be found.

Like other animals, humans explore to learn about the world, and exploit what we have learned in order to maximize reward. The trade-off between exploration and exploitation is a widely-studied topic that cuts across multiple domains, including animal ecology, economics, and computer science. This work approaches the explore-exploit dilemma from the perspective of cognitive neuroscience. In particular, how are our decisions to explore or exploit represented computationally? And how is that representation implemented in the brain? Experiment 1 examined neural signals following outcomes in a risk-taking task. Explorations – defined as slower responses – were preceded by an enhancement of the P300, a component of the human event-related brain potential thought to reflect a phasic release of norepinephrine from locus coeruleus. Experiment 2 revealed that the same neural signal precedes feedback in a learning task called a two-armed bandit. There, a reinforcement learning model was used to classify responses as either exploitations or explorations; exploitations were driven by previous rewards, and explorations were not. Experiments 3 and 4 extended these results in three important ways. First, evidence is presented that the neural signal observed in Experiments 1 and 2 was driven not only by the upcoming decision, but also by the preceding decision (perhaps even more so). Second, Experiments 3 and 4 involved increasingly larger action spaces. Experiment 3 involved choosing from among either 4, 9, or 16 options. Experiment 4 involved searching for rewards in continuous two-dimensional map. In both experiments, the feedback-locked P300 was enhanced following exploration. Third, exploitation was the more common strategy in Experiments 1 and 2. Thus, it was unclear whether the exploration-related P300 enhancement observed there was due to exploration per se, to exploration rate, or to the fact that exploration was rare compared to exploitation. Experiment 3 partially address this by eliciting different rates of exploration; the exploration-related P300 effect correlated with rate of exploration. In Experiment 4, exploration was more common than exploitation (in contrast to Experiments 1–3); even so, exploration was followed by a P300 enhancement. Together, Experiments 1–4 suggest the presence of a general neural system related to exploration that operates across multiple task types (discrete to continuous), regardless of whether exploration or exploitation is the more common task strategy. The proposed purpose of this neural signal is to interrupt one mode of decision-making (exploration) in favour of another (exploitation). / Graduate

Cílem této diplomové práce je najít a popsat souvislost mezi fixací očí v emočně zabarveném stimulu, kterým je obrázek či video, a EEG signálu. K tomuto studiu je třeba vyvinout softwarové nástroje v prostředí Matlab k úpravě a zpracování dat získaných z eye trackeru a propojení s EEG signály pomocí nově vytvořených markerů. Na základě získaných znalostí o fixacích, jsou v prostředí BrainVision Analyzeru EEG data zpracovány a následně jsou segmentovány a průměrovány jako evokované potenciály pro jednotlivé stimuly (ERP a EfRP). Tato práce je vypracována ve spolupráci s Gipsa-lab v rámci výzkumného projektu.

The present study intended to examine the neural basis of audiovisual integration, hypothetically achieved by synchronized gamma-band oscillations (30--80 Hz) that have been suggested to integrate stimulus features and top--down information. To that end, we studied the impact of visual symbolic information on early auditory sensory processing of upcoming sounds. In particular, we used a symbol-to-sound--matching paradigm in which simple score-like patterns predict corresponding sound patterns. Occasionally, a single sound is incongruent with the corresponding element of the visual pattern. In response to expected sounds congruent with the corresponding visual symbol, a power increase of phase-locked (evoked) activity in the 40-Hz band was observed peaking 42-ms poststimulus onset. Thus, for the first time, we demonstrated that the comparison process between a neural model, the expectation, and the current sensory input is implemented at very early levels of auditory processing. Subsequently, expected congruent sounds elicited a broadband power increase of non--phase-locked (induced)activity peaking 152-ms poststimulus onset, which might reflect the formation of a unitary event representation including both visual and auditory aspects of the stimulation. Gamma-band responses were not present for unexpected incongruent sounds. A model explaining the anticipatory activation of cortical auditory representations and the match of experience against expectation is presented

Au quotidien, notre attention sélective nous permet de sélectionner les informations pertinentes au regard de notre tâche et d'ignorer celles qui ne le sont pas, afin de maintenir un comportement cohérent avec nos buts. Néanmoins, dans certaines situations, un stimulus complètement non-pertinent peut capturer notre attention contre notre volonté et, de ce fait, produire un phénomène de distraction. La distraction a initialement été considérée comme essentiellement dépendante de la saillance perceptive des distracteurs. Cependant, de récentes études ont mis en évidence que les stimuli associés à l'obtention d'une récompense (i.e., disposant d'une histoire de récompense) sont également susceptibles de produire des effets de distraction particulièrement robustes et persistants (indépendamment de leur pertinence pour la tâche en cours et de leur saillance perceptive). Parallèlement, tout un autre champ de recherche a été consacré à l’étude du contrôle attentionnel qui peut être mis en place afin de prévenir une distraction par des stimuli visuellement saillants. Cependant, à ce jour, très peu de travaux ont tenté de manipuler la qualité du contrôle attentionnel qui peut être instauré pour éviter la distraction par des stimulus associés à une récompense. L'objectif de notre travail était donc de déterminer si, et si oui, dans quelles conditions, ces distracteurs pouvaient être ignorés efficacement ou, au contraire, pouvaient résister au contrôle attentionnel. Dans sept études, nous avons associé des stimuli visuels initialement neutres à une récompense (monétaire ou sociale) afin d’étudier leur impact sur les performances lorsqu’ils apparaissaient comme distracteurs dans des tâches recherche visuelle. Nous avons manipulé la qualité du contrôle attentionnel en faisant varier les contraintes perceptives (i.e., charge perceptive : Études 1 et 2), cognitives (i.e., charge cognitive : Étude 3) ou sensorielles (i.e., dégradation sensorielle : Études 4-7) imposées par la tâche. Nous avons mis en évidence que l'interférence provoquée par un distracteur associé à une forte récompense monétaire, contrairement à celle provoquée par des distracteurs uniquement saillants, peut résister à l'augmentation de la charge perceptive (Étude 1). L'analyse des potentiels cérébraux évoqués par ces distracteurs (Etude 2) suggère que cet effet puisse résulter d’une capture attentionnelle (N2pc) accrue en charge perceptive faible et d’une suppression attentionnelle (Pd) moins efficace en charge perceptive forte pour ces distracteurs. Contrairement à nos attentes, aucun effet de la récompense n'a été observé dans l’étude manipulant la charge cognitive (Étude 3), nous conduisant à proposer que notre manipulation ait pu drainer les ressources cognitives nécessaires à l'apprentissage de l’association distracteur-récompense. Ensuite, nous avons montré que l'augmentation de la pression temporelle (Étude 4-5), réputée pour favoriser la sélection précoce d'une cible, peut au contraire, dans certaines conditions, entrainer une plus grande difficulté à ignorer les distracteurs. Pour autant, dans ces conditions, le simple fait que des distracteurs récompensés puissent apparaître semble impacter encore plus négativement la sélection d'une cible que la pression temporelle elle-même. Enfin, nos deux dernières études (Études 6-7) ont mobilisé un cadre expérimental plus écologique, impliquant la recherche de cibles dans des photographies de scènes routières prises du point de vue d’un conducteur d’automobile et l’apparition de distracteurs récompensés sur l’écran d’un smartphone présent dans l’habitacle. Nous avons mis en évidence que la dégradation sensorielle de la cible (via une augmentation de l'intensité du brouillard) entraine une distraction plus importante pour des distracteurs associés à une récompense sociale, en particulier pour les personnes présentant un niveau élevé de FoMO (Fear of Missing Out ; peur de manquer une expérience sociale). [...] / In our daily activities, selective attention allow us to select task-relevant information among irrelevant ones, in order to maintain consistent, goal-directed behavior. However, sometimes, a completely irrelevant stimulus can capture our attention against our will and, as a result, produce a distraction phenomenon. Distraction was initially considered to be essentially dependent on the perceptual salience of the distractors. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that stimuli associated with reward outcome (i.e., with a reward history) are also likely to produce particularly robust and persistent distraction effects (regardless of their relevance to the task at hand and their perceptual salience). Alongside, a large body of works has been devoted to the study of attentional control, which could prevent distraction by perceptually salient distractors. However, to date, very little work has attempted to manipulate the quality of the attentional control that could be implemented to avoid distraction by reward history. The objective of our work was therefore to determine whether, and if so, under what conditions, reward-distractors could be ignored or, on the contrary, could resist attentional control. Seven studies were conducted with neutral visual stimuli associated with (monetary or social) reward outcome, in order to investigate how they could affect task performance when they appeared as distractors in visual search tasks. Attentional control was manipulated by varying the perceptual (i.e., perceptual load: Studies 1 and 2), cognitive (i.e., cognitive load: Study 3) or sensory (i.e., sensory degradation: Studies 4-7) demands imposed by the task. We have shown that high-reward distractor interference resists to perceptual load increase, unlike that caused by only salient distractor (Study 1). Our event-related potentials study (Study 2) suggests that this effect may be due to an enhanced attentional capture (N2pc) under low perceptual load and by a less effective attentional suppression (Pd) under high perceptual load for high-reward distractors. Next, contrary to our expectations, no effect of reward history was observed when manipulating cognitive load (Study 3), leading us to propose that our manipulation could have drained the cognitive resources necessary to learn the distractor-reward association. Then, we have shown that the increase in time pressure (Studies 4-5), known to promote the early selection of relevant targets, could also enhanced the difficulty to ignore distractors under some circumstances. Nevertheless, in these conditions, the mere fact that rewarded distractors may appear seems to increase the difficulty to ignore the distractors, more than the time pressure itself. Finally, our last two studies (Studies 6-7) mobilized a more ecological visual search task, involving pictures of driving situations taken from a driver point-of-view, in which reward distractors were displayed on the screen of a smartphone in the vehicle cabin. The sensory degradation of the target (achieved by increasing the fog density outside the car) has led to greater distraction for distractors paired with a social reward, especially for people with a high level of FoMO (Fear of Missing Out; that is, the pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding social experiences from which one is absent). These results are discussed in the light of the literature on distraction by reward history and attentional control, in order to integrate the reward history into these models. Moreover, our observations are discussed under the scope of applied researches that focused on driver distraction, in which our work has a particular resonance.

Objective: Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) aimed at restoring communication to people with severe neuromuscular disabilities often use event-related potentials (ERPs) in scalp-recorded EEG activity. Up to the present, most research and development in this area has been done in the laboratory with young healthy control subjects. In order to facilitate the development of BCI most useful to people with disabilities, the present study set out to: (1) determine whether people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and healthy, age-matched volunteers (HVs) differ in the speed and accuracy of their ERP-based BCI use; (2) compare the ERP characteristics of these two groups; and (3) identify ERP-related factors that might enable improvement in BCI performance for people with disabilities. Methods: Sixteen EEG channels were recorded while people with ALS or healthy age-matched volunteers (HVs) used a P300-based BCI. The subjects with ALS had little or no remaining useful motor control (mean ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised 9.4 (±9.5SD) (range 0-25)). Each subject attended to a target item as the items in a 6. ×. 6 visual matrix flashed. The BCI used a stepwise linear discriminant function (SWLDA) to determine the item the user wished to select (i.e., the target item). Offline analyses assessed the latencies, amplitudes, and locations of ERPs to the target and non-target items for people with ALS and age-matched control subjects. Results: BCI accuracy and communication rate did not differ significantly between ALS users and HVs. Although ERP morphology was similar for the two groups, their target ERPs differed significantly in the location and amplitude of the late positivity (P300), the amplitude of the early negativity (N200), and the latency of the late negativity (LN). Conclusions: The differences in target ERP components between people with ALS and age-matched HVs are consistent with the growing recognition that ALS may affect cortical function. The development of BCIs for use by this population may begin with studies in HVs but also needs to include studies in people with ALS. Their differences in ERP components may affect the selection of electrode montages, and might also affect the selection of presentation parameters (e.g., matrix design, stimulation rate). Significance: P300-based BCI performance in people severely disabled by ALS is similar to that of age-matched control subjects. At the same time, their ERP components differ to some degree from those of controls. Attention to these differences could contribute to the development of BCIs useful to those with ALS and possibly to others with severe neuromuscular disabilities.

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier le développement du système lexico-sémantique chez les enfants monolingues et bilingues. La question posée est la suivante : quand et comment les significations des mots commencent à être reliées entre elles et à s'intégrer dans un système sémantique interconnecté. Dans un premier temps, trois études ont été menées chez des enfants monolingues français. L'Etude 1, a pour but d'observer si les mots sont organisés selon des liens taxonomiques (e.g., cochon - cheval). L'Etude 2 explore si l'effet d'amorçage sémantique est sous-tendu par des mécanismes cognitifs, comme les processus d'activation automatique et contrôlé. Puis enfin, l'Etude 3 observe si les mots sont organisés en fonction de leur distance de similarité sémantique (e.g., vache - mouton versus vache - cerf). Dans un deuxième temps, deux études ont été conduites chez des enfants apprenant deux langues simultanément. L'Etude 4 vise à déterminer si les mots sont taxonomiquement liés dans chacune des langues. L'Etude 5 explore si les mots présentés dans une langue activent leurs représentations sémantiques dans l'autre langue et vice versa. Dans le but de répondre à ces questions, le traitement lexico-sémantique a été étudié en utilisant deux techniques : l'eye-tracking et les potentiels évoqués (PEs). Ces deux techniques enregistrent lors de la présentation des mots des réponses comportementales (Etude 3) et neuronales (Etude 1, 2, 4 et 5) de haute résolution temporelle. Les Etudes 1 et 2 montrent que chez les monolingues les mots sont liés taxonomiquement à l'âge de 18 et 24 mois. Durant le développement du langage, les deux processus d'activation automatique et contrôlé sont impliqués dans le traitement des mots (Etude 2). L'Etude 3 montre qu'à 24 mois, les mots sont organisés dans le système lexico-sémantique en développement selon la distance des similarités sémantiques. L'Etude 4 montre que chez les enfants bilingues, le traitement sémantique ne diffère pas selon les deux langues, mais la topographie des PEs varie selon la langue traitée. L'Etude 5 montre que les mots présentés dans une langue activent leurs représentations sémantiques dans la deuxième langue et vice versa. Toutefois, la topographie des PEs est modulée selon la direction de traduction. Ces résultats suggèrent que l'acquisition de deux langues, bien qu'elle soit très précoce, requière deux ressources neuronales bien distinctes, sous-tendant ainsi le traitement lexico-sémantique des langues dominante et non-dominante. / The present doctoral research explored the developing lexical-semantic system in monolingual and bilingual toddlers. The question of how and when word meanings are first related to each other and become integrated into an interconnected semantic system was investigated. Three studies were conducted with monolingual French learning children which aimed at exploring how words are organized, that is, according to taxonomic relationships (e.g., pig - horse) and to semantic similarity distances between words (e.g., cow - sheep versus cow - deer), and whether cognitive mechanisms, such as automatic activation and controlled processes, underlie priming effects. An additional two studies conducted with children learning two languages simultaneously, aimed at determining, first, whether taxonomically related word meanings, in each of the two languages, are processed in a similar manner. The second goal was to explore whether words presented in one language activate words in another language, and vice versa. In an attempt to answer these questions, lexical-semantic processing was explored by two techniques: eye-tracking and event-related potentials (ERPs) techniques. Both techniques provide high temporal resolution measures of word processing but differ in terms of responses. Eye-movement measurements (Study III) reflect looking preferences in response to spoken words and their time-course, whereas ERPs reflect implicit brain responses and their activity patterns (Study I, II, IV, and V). Study I and II revealed that words are taxonomically organized at 18 and 24-month-olds. Both automatic and controlled processes were shown to be involved in word processing during language development (Study II). Study III revealed that at 24-month-olds, categorical and feature overlap between items underpin the developing lexical-semantic system. That is, lexical-items in each semantic category are organized according to graded similarity distances. Productive vocabulary skills influenced word recognition and were related to underlying cognitive mechanisms. Study IV revealed no differences in terms of semantic processing in the bilinguals¿ two languages, but the ERP distribution across the scalp varied according to the language being processed. Study V showed that words presented in one language activate their semantic representations in the second language and the other way around. The distribution of the ERPs depended, however, on the direction of translation. The results suggest that even early dual language experience yields distinct neural resources underlying lexical-semantic processing in the dominant and non-dominant languages during language acquisition.