Youth sports today often mimic professional versions of the sport. Combined with the competitive nature of society, youth sports have become a place where there are few winners and numerous losers. Additionally, many youth sport programs lack the fun, playful elements that used to be prevalent in informal sports. This study uses conjoint analysis to examine parents’ and children’s preferences for coaching methods (intervals, stroke drills, relays, and challenges), hedonic social activities (fun games, parties, and social events), and extrinsic rewards (best time ribbons, place ribbons, and participation ribbons) in a youth swim team program. The conjoint analysis offers insight about which coaching methods, hedonic social activities, and extrinsic rewards are preferred and acceptable to parents and children. Parents and children had similar preferences with their main desire being for the child to learn how to swim. Results indicate that parents and children are socialized into a belief of what sports programs should encompass and that current youth swim team programs are not serving all children. / text

This study tests the effectiveness of a program designed to use extrinsic incentives in improving the motivation of disadvantaged students to achieve academic success. This study seeks to determine whether the specific extrinsic rewards provided in the program actually improve the success of students on classroom tests. A secondary purpose of the study is to assess the extent to which that success, if achieved, becomes itself a reinforcement sufficient to maintain continued success in the classroom. Ignoring age and grade, students from the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades were grouped by their skill level in mathematics and assigned to an individual teacher. The study was conducted during four consecutive two-week periods. Base-line data were obtained during the first two-week period of both experimental and control students under regular classroom conditions. Extrinsic incentives were applied to the experimental group during each of the following two-week periods and identical measures were taken during the same period of both the experimental and control groups. The analysis-of-covariance statistical treatment was used to compare changes on test success. The .05 level of confidence was held as the standard for statistical significance. Two extrinsic incentives, a free movie and a monetary reward, were employed to bring about improved performance on mathematical tests. Separate and combined effects of the incentives were examined for the total group and for subgroups based on sex, ethnicity, and initial mathematics ability.

In view of the rapid decrease in the number of students opting to train as teachers and the increasing numbers of teachers leaving the profession; the teaching profession in South Africa is indeed what Duke (1984) termed “imperilled”. While quantitative research identifies remuneration to be the foremost factor attributed to the dissatisfaction of teachers in South Africa as elsewhere; the main purpose of this study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of remuneration. Nine qualified women teachers aged between 25 and 35 years of age, who had been teaching for at least two years and less than ten, volunteered to take part in this study. The sample was drawn from government schools in a suburban part of Johannesburg. This research was based on the information gathered from a short biographical questionnaire followed by in-depth, semi-structured interviews. A process of language sensitive thematic content analysis was employed in order to analyse the data from the interviews. The research indicates that in the decision to enter the teaching profession, notions of the perception that teaching is a vocation predominate. An emphasis on the related intrinsic rewards to be gained from teaching was found to receive greater focus than monetary concerns on entering the profession. The participants expressed that women are more likely to enter the teaching profession while even though men may share the passion to teach, they are seriously deterred by the poor levels of remuneration. The participants explained that as the contexts of their lives changed, so too did their perceptions of remuneration, often resulting in an increasing emphasis on the importance of better remuneration to meet their and their families’ financial needs. Related to this, it was found that as South African teachers were exposed to an almost overwhelming number of challenges, the participants began to experience fewer intrinsic rewards which seemed to impact negatively on their perceptions of remuneration. Thus of the nine participants, only two indicated their long-term commitment to the teaching profession whereas the remaining seven all had plans to leave the profession in search of better remuneration.

Growing concern for the popularity of art competitions that encourage participation of secondary school senior art students is reflected in debate by many Australian art educators. It appears that acceptance of the external goal of winning a prize may demonstrate that many students and teachers have not fully considered the adverse implications of extrinsic rewards on learning strategies relevant to artistic behavior. On the other hand the benefit of exhibitions of student art work appears to be overshadowed by the prevalence of art competitions. This study surveys attitudes and perceptions of art teachers and secondary senior art students towards art competitions supported by the school. Subjects include secondary senior art students and teachers from selected Brisbane Independent Schools. It appears that participation in art competitions is more frequent in these schools. Results may prove beneficial to art educators who are concerned with the issue of extrinsic rewards for artistic behavior.

This new economic era is characterized by organizations managing a diverse workforce across different generations. These generations have different work values, goals, and expectations on their employer, which poses various challenges for human resource managers in managing and retaining employees from different generations. The most recent generation that is currently entering the workforce is generation Y, and they are described as the younger generation with high employee turnover and reluctance to pledge long-term work commitments. Therefore, it is in the interest of organizations to tailor reward schemes that resonate with generation Yers in fostering organizational commitment. Thus, this thesis aims to examine how extrinsic and intrinsic rewards affect organizational commitment in generation Y. To answer these questions, this thesis reviews previous literature and use the self-determination theory to see how the different rewards affect the organizational commitment of generation Y. This study has been conducted through interviews with employees that are born within the age spectrum of generation Y (1980-1999) to understand how reward systems affect organizational commitment in generation Y employees. This thesis found that intrinsic rewards affect organizational commitment in a far more positive manner than extrinsic rewards. Furthermore, intrinsic rewards resonate to a greater extent with the employees from generation Y and should, therefore, be a priority for organizations. Moreover, this thesis concludes that intrinsic rewards can more easily satisfy the basic psychological needs, which are, as according to the self-determination theory, crucial to foster organizational commitment.

Long-term declarative memory depends on pattern separation, which reduces the degree of overlap between similar representations, to maintain memory specificity, and on pattern completion, which occurs when a degraded cue is used to retrieve a previously stored memory. Previous studies aimed at evaluating the underlying neuronal substrates of these computational processes have used a mnemonic discrimination paradigm and fMRI to focus on the hippocampus, to the exclusion of cortical processing. We aim to investigate the influences extra-hippocampal processes have on pattern separation in the following two studies. Study 1. Computational models of pattern completion suggest it occurs cortically and results in generalized memories whereas pattern separation occurs in the hippocampus and results in memory specificity. It is unknown how the incongruity of these two neuronal processes is resolved. Many studies evaluating the neuronal correlates of pattern separation have used fMRI to evaluate activity in the hippocampus. The sluggish time resolution of fMRI and the restricted spatial focus leave room for considerable differences between pattern completion and pattern separation to go undetected. Here, we use encephalography (EEG) and an event-related potential (ERP) analysis to examine neuronal activity during pattern separation and pattern completion to investigate whether or not cortical processing is employed to resolve the discrepancy between these two neuronal processes. We largely did not observe differences between the ERPs associated with pattern separation and pattern completion. Failure to identify neuronal differences could result from the bulk of neuronal processing differentiating between the two processes occurring deeper in the brain than can be measured by ERPs. Study 2. Extrinsic rewards contingent on memory performance can boost memory and learning. However, the effects of extrinsic rewards on memory specificity, particularly in regards to the process of pattern separation, are not well understood. In this behavioral study, we evaluate how extrinsic rewards affect behavioral performance in a task that taxes pattern separation. Our data show that rewards given for participation at the time of encoding boost mnemonic discrimination between target-lure pairs while rewards given for memory performance at the time of retrieval do not. We hypothesize this is because pattern separation is an encoding dependent process. This boost in discriminability is only seen when the rewarded stimuli are blocked together in separate blocks from the non-rewarded stimuli. When the rewarded and non-rewarded stimuli are interspersed within blocks, discriminability does not significantly differ between the rewarded and non-rewarded trials. Overall, performance was better when rewards were contingent on performance than when rewards independent of performance, although this difference is eliminated when attention during encoding is controlled.

Attendance in our nation's schools continues to decline. It is necessary for schools to expand their programs and strategies to improve student attendance. Incentives and rewards for excellent attendance have had positive results in studies researched, but little has been done to research the relationship between changes in attendance and implemented incentive programs. This quantitative study examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on high school student attendance at two separate schools. The first part of the study enabled a chance to win a daily cash prize with value based upon the number of students successfully attending all day. Changes in attendance in the current school year versus the previous school year were measured and analyzed. The second part of the study compared attendance and student attitudes between two comprehensive high schools, where one school represented the treatment group and other the control group. Attendance performance criteria were established that would allow students the chance to earn extrinsic rewards at the end of the first semester of school. Changes in attendance in the current school year versus the previous school year were measured and analyzed. An analysis between change in attendance, school GPA, and student GPA was performed for each school and compared. Finally, a longitudinal study was performed using surveys at each school to measure any changes in student attitudes related to (a) reasons for attending school, (b) interest in school, and (c) satisfaction with school. The null hypotheses were there is no statistically significant relationship between the use of rewards for excellent attendance and (a) the average daily attendance of students, (b) their grade point averages, (c) their motivation to attend, or (d) their interest and satisfaction in the school experience. Results of the first study showed that the change in attendance between school years was statistically significant. While the second showed statistically significant increases in attendance at both schools, the additional increase at the treatment school was also significant. No significant relationship was found between the use of rewards for attendance and school GPA, student GPA, motivation to attend, or the interest and satisfaction in the school experience.

Technology enhancements of the past two decades have not successfully overcome the problem of low motivation in Kindergarten through Grade 12 (K-12). Motivation and math achievement have been identified as major factors contributing to the high school dropout problem (30-50% in traditional/online programs). The impact of extrinsic rewards on achievement and the dropout problem, however, remains a subject of debate. This dissertation seeks first to address this debate, through an investigation of reward system effectiveness in the blended learning environment, on at-risk students with varied intrinsic motivation factor scores. Next, the dissertation explores the importance of fit between students' reward perceptions and reward values when motivating student progress. To this end, the author has developed a new 6-factor motivation orientation model for students in blended learning environments, and a learner-configurable progress-based reward system (PBR) for Learner Content Management Systems (LCMS) based on this model. The hypothesized model was tested for fit with a sample of 353 at-risk high school math students in Miami, Florida. The PBR was developed based upon the findings from interviews with subject matter experts and students, factor and regression analyses used to test hypotheses about learner motivation and predict learner progress. Conclusions from the study informed the design of an integrated PBR. A 6-factor motivation orientation model was found to explain more of the variance (74%) in student motivation than earlier models. Contrary to Deci et al. (1999), hypothesis test results did not confirm adversarial extrinsic rewards/intrinsic motivation relationships. Furthermore, consistent with person-environment fit theory, learners demonstrated superior progress and achievement when extrinsic reward perceptions and values were well aligned. With critical input from flexible learning theorists, teachers, and students, the emerging PBR design may ultimately be integrated through mobile learning applications and social media, within LCMS solutions such as Blackboard, and systems commonly used in K-12, such as Apex. Although beyond the scope of the dissertation, the emerging Web-based design promises to play an important role in engaging a K-12 Community of Practice (CoP), consisting of telecommunications partners, game developers, retailers, and education stakeholders sharing a significant interest in future innovations that address the dropout problem.

This study focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic work rewards among women and men in 12 post-industrial nations in the Global North. Guiding my analyses was Esping-Andersen’s theoretical framework and the following three main research questions: (1) how individual attributes and national policies influence the salience individuals assign to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards; (2) how individual attributes and national policies differ from each other in relative magnitude as predictors of the value individuals assign to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards; and (3) how individual attributes and national policies impact the importance individuals assign to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards differs by gender. For the micro level analysis, I used data from the 2005 International Social Survey Program Work Orientation Module. The twelve countries included in the analysis are Australia, Denmark, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States. Macro level policy data are drawn from the 2005 Social Expenditure Database and maternity leave data are from the 2005 International Network on Leave Policy and Research. Analysis was performed using Stata regression with the cluster command. While not all variables included in the model were statistically significant, the general hypotheses were supported with the following results: (1) micro level variables (education, income, and employment) and macro level variables (paid family leave and the percentage of GDP spent on childcare and pre-primary education) increased the importance individual’s assign to intrinsic rewards; (2) the lack of human capital increases an individual’s emphasis on extrinsic rewards; (3) while macro level variables have a far greater impact on the importance individuals assign to intrinsic work rewards, both micro and macro level factors are important for explaining the maximum possible variation in the importance individuals assign to intrinsic work rewards; and (4) gender does not change the value an individual assigns to intrinsic or extrinsic rewards. This study represents a new, more comprehensive approach to studying the relationships among micro-level factors, structural opportunities and constraints, intrinsic and extrinsic work rewards, and gender. A review of the literature shows no other studies of this scope.

There is increasing recognition that informal learning is a crucial component of organizational functioning and a necessary complement to the formal training that employees receive. As jobs evolve and demand more complex skills, workers must use informal learning to adapt to ever-changing work requirements. Informal learning is often dependent on voluntary knowledge sharing behavior, as evident among members of mastermind groups or communities of practice. In order to assist organizations, researchers must seek to understand the factors that motivate employees to engage in knowledge sharing behavior. Empirical research on knowledge sharing is nascent. There exists only a handful of quantitative studies examining organizational factors (e.g., rewards) and individual factors (e.g., learning goal orientation and personality) as they relate to knowledge sharing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. This body of work is also muddied by inconsistent operationalizations of constructs and a lack of an organizing framework. For instance, rewards have been popularly discussed and implemented as tools for incentivizing employees to perform. However, research has produced mixed findings regarding its effects on knowledge sharing behavior in organizations. There has also been a variety of different rewards examined without clear consistency in the results. The present study addressed several research needs of this area. First, two separate samples were used to assess the psychometric properties (i.e., reliability and factor structure) of new measurement instruments developed for rewards, knowledge sharing behavior, and organizational learning culture. Item content validation was performed with 14 subject matter experts. Scale dimensionality was established using exploratory factor analysis with data from a sample of 230 university students and confirmatory factor analysis with data from a second sample of 569 participants. Hypothesized relationships among dimensions of constructs as well as moderators were examined using regression analyses. Results did not support the popularly conjectured intrinsic versus extrinsic distinction between rewards. Results showed that rewards predicted knowledge asking but did not predict knowledge giving behavior. Non-financial rewards were found to vary in motivational value for knowledge giving depending on an individual’s career stage. Three dimensions of goal orientation exhibited differential relationships with knowledge sharing behavior. Finally, this study demonstrated that the negative relationship between performance avoid orientation and knowledge giving was attenuated in a strong organizational learning culture, providing empirical support for the situational strength theory. The findings from this work can inform organizational decision makers of how to harness the motivational value of rewards by understanding the career concerns of employees. This work also contributes by identifying person and situation factors that interact to facilitate a crucial kind of informal learning activity, knowledge sharing behavior in organizations.