This study tested the hypotheses that perceived risk of victimization had a stronger effect than actual exposure to victimization risk on handgun ownership and that this relationship was stronger for women than men. Perceived and actual risks of victimization have been discussed with respect to handgun ownership, but a general consensus in the literature was lacking and recent empirical research was scarce. Crime rates and respondents' social characteristics were used as proxy measures for victimization risk, while fear of crime measured perceived risk of victimization. Three sets of models were estimated, the first with a pooled sample of men and women, the second and third on samples separated by gender. Binary logistic regression was utilized to compare the predictive power of these two major correlates of handgun ownership and observe how their effects varied by gender. Data were drawn from the National Opinion for Research Center's (NORC) Cumulative General Social Surveys (GSS) for the years 1986 through 2008. Predictors of victimization risk, especially gender and regional crime rate, had strong effects on handgun possession, while perceived risk had no effect on handgun possession. Results also demonstrated that while women were more likely to fear crime, they were not necessarily more or less likely than men to obtain handguns in response to that fear. / Master of Science

Panic attacks are, by definition, frightening experiences. Recent research has attempted to develop efficacious treatments for individuals suffering from these sudden episodes of fear. The current investigation sought to examine the efficacy of a new cognitive-behavioral treatment, Guided lmaginal Coping. This treatment aims to improve the coping repertoires of panic sufferers. Pilot results with this treatment suggest that it is an effective treatment. The current study sought to extend these findings by evaluating the process of change over time. The second purpose of the current investigation was to examine whether the concept of self-efficacy could help explain the process of change over time. Nineteen subjects diagnosed with Panic Disorder or Agoraphobia with panic attacks were assigned to one of two treatment groups: Guided lmaginal Coping or Panic Education, a nondirective treatment. Subjects in each group received six individual and four group therapy sessions. In addition to treatment, each subject met with a trained evaluator before treatment began, the five weeks of treatment, posttreatment, and one and two month follow-up periods. During these evaluations, subjects participated in a taped anxiety induction procedure and completed questionnaires concerning their degree of self-efficacy, level of panic symptoms, catastrophic thoughts, avoidance, and frequency of coping. Results indicated that subjects in both treatment groups had significant reductions in symptoms, catastrophic thoughts, and number of attacks. Guided lmaginal Coping subjects demonstrated reduction in avoidance and showed continued improvement in symptom reduction during the follow-up period, Both groups showed improved coping abilities. Self-efflcacy and rated coping were significantly related at all evaluation periods. Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that self-efficacy appeared to lead to changes in catastrophic thoughts whereas self-efficacy and symptom level appeared mutually causal. Self-efficacy and avoidance did not appear consistently related nor did self-efficacy and coping frequency. Rated coping effectiveness appeared to improve in both groups although coping frequency did not. Results are discussed related to treatment outcome and to panic not being as refractory a problem as presumed. Implications are discussed in terms of models of panic and the significance of self-efficacy and catastrophic cognitions to these models and to the amelioration of panic. / Ph. D.

No description available.

Forskning om stickrädda barn i elevhälsovården bedöms som otillräcklig, men betydelsefull då många vaccinationer sker i skolan. Syftet var att undersöka flickors upplevelser kring HPV- vaccination i elevhälsovården. Uppsatsstudien hade en mixad metod design och studien var baserad på enkätsvar från 14 flickor i årskurs fem och sex. Det kvantitativa resultatet visade att hälften av flickorna skattade sig som rädda i samband med HPV-vaccination och av dem skattade sig 42 % som livrädda. Upplevd smärta och rädslan för eventuell smärta var de faktorer flickorna uppgav skapade rädsla. Att ha en förälder och/eller en kompis med sig vid vaccinationen var enligt flickorna de viktigaste strategierna för att kunna minska deras rädsla. Det fanns en positiv korrelation mellan flickornas skattade rädsla och hur de upplevde att de inte kunde koncentrera sig på skolarbetet under hela veckan innan vaccination (r2=0,761; p=0,002). Det kvalitativa resultatet visade att flickorna upplevde starka fysiska och psykiska reaktioner såsom gråt, illamående, panik och stress, orsakade av rädsla inför, under och efter vaccinationen. Då elevhälsvårdens övergripande mål handlar om att förebygga både fysisk och psykisk ohälsa för barn och ungdomar är det viktigt att belysa problematiken med stickrädsla. Sammanfattningsvis behövs vidare forskning genomföras. Detta för att bättre kunna förstå hur omfattande stickrädsla är bland skolelever och för att sätta elevernas perspektiv i fokus. / Research on children with fear of needles in the student health service is estimated as inadequate but important because many vaccinations take place at school. The aim was to examine girls’ experiences of HPV-vaccination in student health services. The study had mixed method design and the study was based on survey responses from 14 girls in the fifth and sixth grade. The quantitative results showed that half of the girls estimated themselves as frightened during HPV-vaccination, and 42 % rated themselves as terrified. The percieved pain and fear of eventuall pain were the factors in the girls' experiences of HPV- vaccination that caused fear. Having a parent and/or a friend present as support are the two most common strategies for reducing the fear during the HPV-vaccination, according to the girls. There was a positive correlation between the girls' estimated fear and their percieved ability to not be able to concentrate on schoolwork during the week prior to vaccination (r2= 0.761; p = 0.002). The qualitative results showed that before, during and after vaccination, strong physical and psychological reactions such as crying, nausea, panic and stress were caused by fear. The student health services overall goal is about preventing both physical and mental health of children and adolescents and therefor it is important to highlight the problem of fear of needles. Further research is therefor needed to better understand the extent of fear of needles among schoolchildren and focus on their perspective.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe, chronic and debilitating psychiatric disorder that can present after the experience of a life-threatening traumatic event. D-cycloserine (DCS), a partial N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist, has been found to augment cognitive behavioural therapy by facilitating fear extinction; however, the precise mechanisms whereby DCS ameliorates fear triggered by a traumatic context remains to be fully elucidated. This study aimed to (i) identify the molecular mechanisms of intrahippocampally administered DCS in facilitating fear extinction in a rat model of PTSD by investigating gene expression profiles in the left dorsal hippocampus (LDH) of male Sprague Dawley rats and (ii) determine whether microRNA (miRNA) expression and DNA methylation mediated these gene expression changes. An adapted version of the PTSD animal model described by Siegmund and Wotjak (2007) was utilised. The total number of 120 rats were grouped into four experimental groups (of 30 rats per group) based on fear conditioning and the intrahippocampal administration of either DCS or saline: (1) fear conditioned + intrahippocampal saline administration (FS), (2) fear conditioned + intrahippocampal DCS administration (FD), (3) control + intrahippocampal saline administration (CS) and (4) control + intrahippocampal DCS administration (CD). Behavioural tests (the light/dark [L/D] avoidance test, forced swim test and open field test) were conducted to assess anxiety and PTSD-like behaviours. The L/D avoidance test was the most sensitive behavioural test of anxiety and was subsequently used to differentiate maladapted (animals that displayed anxiety-like behaviour) and well-adapted (animals that did not display anxiety-like behaviour) subgroups. In order to identify genes that were differentially expressed between FS maladapted (FSM) (n = 6) vs. FD well-adapted (FDW) (n = 6) groups, RNA sequencing was performed on the Illumina HiSeq 2000 which generated more than 60 million reads per sample. This was followed by subsequent bioinformatics analyses (using the software programs TopHat, Bowtie, Cuffdiff and Bio-Ontological Relationship Graph (BORG) database (that identifies genes that may be biologically relevant) to identify biologically relevant differentially expressed genes between the treatment groups. Epigenetic mechanisms mediating observed differences in gene expression were investigated by conducting DNA methylation and miRNAseq analyses in the FDW and FSM experimental groups. DNA methylation was investigated using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) amplification followed by high resolution melt analysis on the Rotor-GeneTM 6000. Differences in miRNA expression levels between the FDW and FSM groups were investigated by sequencing the miRNA fraction on the MiSeq platform. The bioinformatics pipeline used to analyse the RNAseq data identified 93 genes that were significantly downregulated in the FDW group compared to the FSM group. Forty-two of these genes were predicted to be biologically relevant (based on BORG analysis). Integrative network analyses revealed subsets of differentially expressed genes common across biological functions, pathways and disorders. The co-administration of DCS and behavioural fear extinction downregulated immune system genes and genes that transcribe proinflammatory and oxidative stress molecules. These molecules mediate neuroinflammation and subsequently cause neuronal damage. DCS also regulated genes involved in learning and memory processes. Additionally, a subset of the genes, which have been found to be associated with disorders that commonly co-occur with PTSD (such as cardiovascular disease, metabolic disease, Alzheimer‘s and Parkinson‘s disease), was downregulated by the co-administration of DCS and behavioural fear extinction. In order to determine whether real-time qPCR analysis would be sensitive enough to detect differential expression in those genes found to be differentially expressed in RNAseq analysis, the expression of nine genes was analysed using SYBR Green qPCR technology. In the LDH, six of the nine genes were found to be differentially expressed between FDW and FSM groups and one gene, matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), was observed to be differentially expressed between these two groups in the blood. Three of the nine genes for which differential expression levels were investigated using SYBR Green real-time qPCR, contained CpG islands and were used for CpG island DNA methylation analysis. Results indicated that CpG island DNA methylation did not mediate differential gene expression of TRH, NPY or MT2A. Bioinformatics analysis of miRNAseq data identified 23 miRNAs that were differentially expressed between the FDW and FSM groups. Several of these miRNAs have previously been found to be involved in brain development and behavioural measures of anxiety. Furthermore, functional luciferase analysis indicated that the upregulation of rno-mi31a-5p could have facilitated the downregulation of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist gene (IL1RN) as detected in RNAseq. RNAseq and miRNAseq analyses in this PTSD animal model identified differentially expressed genes and miRNAs that serve to broaden our understanding of the mechanism whereby DCS facilitates fear extinction. To this end, immune system genes and genes transcribing proinflammatory and oxidative stress molecules were among the genes that were found to be differentially expressed between the FDW and FSM groups. Based on the results obtained, it can be hypothesised that DCS attenuates neuroinflammation and subsequent neuronal damage, and also regulates genes involved in learning and memory processes. Concomitantly, these gene expression alterations mediate optimal neuronal functioning, plasticity, learning and memory (such as fear extinction memory) which contribute to the fear extinction process. Furthermore, biologically relevant differentially expressed genes that were associated with DCS facilitation of fear extinction and with other chronic medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and metabolic diseases, might help to explain the co-occurrence of these disorders with PTSD. In conclusion, Identifying the molecular underpinnings of DCS-mediated fear extinction brings us closer to understanding the process of fear extinction and could, in future work be used to explore novel therapeutic targets to effectively treat PTSD and related disorders. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Posttraumatiese stressindroom is 'n ernstige, kroniese aftakelende psigiatriese toestand wat kan ontwikkel na 'n lewensgevaarlike traumatiese gebeurtenis. Daar is bevind dat die gesamentlike toediening van D-sikloserien (DCS), 'n N-metiel-D-aspartaat (NMDA) reseptor agonis, en kognitiewe gedragsterapie effektief is in die bemiddeling van vrees uitwissing; maar die presiese meganisme waar deur DCS die vrees wat deur 'n traumatiese konteks ontlok word verminder, is egter onduidelik. Hierdie studie het beoog om (i) die molekulêre meganismes te identifiseer waardeur intra-hippokampaal toegediende DCS vrees uitwissing fasiliteer, in 'n rot model van posttraumatiese stressindroom, deur geen uitdrukkingsprofiele in the linker dorsale hippokampus (LDH) van manlike Sprague Dawley rotte te ondersoek en (ii) om te bepaal of mikroRNA (miRNA) uitdrukking en DNA metilering die veranderinge in geen uitdrukking bemiddel het. 'n Gewysigde weergawe van die posttraumatiese stressindroom diere model, beskryf deur Siegmund en Wotjak (2007), was gebruik tydens die studie. Rotte was in vier groepe verdeel, vrees kondisionering + soutwater (FS), vrees kondisionering + DCS (FD), kontrole + soutwater (CS) en kontrole + DCS (CD). Gedragstoetse was uitgevoer om angstige, vreesvolle en posttraumatiese stressindroom-tipe gedrag te evalueer. Gedurende die lig/donker (L/D) vermydingstoets het die FS groep aansienlik meer tyd in die donker kompartement deurgebring ('n indikasie van vreesvolle gedrag) in vergelyking met die CS en die FD groepe wat meer tyd in die verligte kompartement deurgebring het ('n indikasie van vreeslose gedrag). Die L/D toets was die mees sensitiewe gedragstoets vir angstige en vreesvolle gedrag en was gevolglik gebruik om die diere te sub-groepeer in wanaangepaste (diere wat angstige en vreesvolle gedrag vertoon het) en goedaangepaste (diere wat nie angstige en vreesvolle gedrag vertoon het nie) subgroepe. Nuwe generasie RNA volgordebepaling (RNAseq) van die LDH RNA en daaropvolgende bioinformatiese analise was uitgevoer om gene te identifiseer wat differensieel uitgedruk is tussen die twee behandelingsgroepe van belang in die betrokke studie, naamlik FS wanaangepaste (FSM) teenoor FD goedaangepaste (FDW) groepe. Epigenetiese analises was uitgevoer om te bepaal of differensieel uitgedrukte miRNAs of CpG-eiland DNA metilasie die differensiële geenuitdrukking bemiddel het. Bioinformatiese analises van die RNAseq data het 93 gene geïdentifiseer waarvan die geen uitdrukking beduidend onderdruk was in die FDW groep in vergelyking met die FSM groep; 42 van hierdie gene was voorspel om biologies relevant te wees. Geïntegreerde netwerk analise het onthul dat sekere van die differensieel uitgedrukte gene gemeenskaplik was tussen verskeie biologiese funksies, padweë en versteurings. DCS het die uitdrukking van immuun-sisteem gene en pro-inflammatoriese en oksidatiewe stres gene verlaag. Hierdie molekules medieer neuro-inflammasie wat gevolglik tot neurale skade lei. DCS het ook gene gereguleer wat betrokke is by leer en geheue prosesse. DCS het onder meer ook die geenuitdrukking verlaag van 'n sub-groep van gene wat voorheen geassosier is met komorbiede versteurings van PTSD. SYBR Green real-time qPCR (werklike tyd kwantitatiewe polimerase ketting reaksie) analise was ondersoek om te bepaal of hierdie metode sensitief genoeg sou wees om die verlaagde geen-uitdrukking van verskeie van die biologies relevante differensieel uitgedrukte gene te identifiseer, in dieselfde LDH komplementêre DNA (cDNA) monsters as wat in die RNAseq gebruik is, asook in die bloed cDNA monsters. SYBR Green real-time qPCR was in staat om ses, van die nege, differensieel uitgedrukte gene in die LDH cDNA monsters en een geen, matriks metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), in die bloed cDNA monsters op te tel. Drie van die gene waarvoor SYBR Green real-time qPCR gebruik is om differensiële geenuitdrukking te toets, het CpG eilande bevat en was gevolglik gebruik in CpG eiland DNA metilering analises. Resultate het getoon dat CpG eiland DNA metilering nie die differensiële geenuitdrukking van TRH, NPY of MT2A gedryf het nie. Bioinformatiese analises van die miRNAseq data het 23 miRNAs geïdentifiseer wat differensieël uitgedruk was tussen die FDW en FSM groepe. Verskeie van hierdie miRNAs is reeds voorheen beskryf om betrokke te wees in brein ontwikkeling en angs gedrags metings. Funksionele luciferase analises het verder aangedui dat die verhoogde uitdrukking van rno-mi31a-5p moontlik die verlaagde geen uitdrukking van IL1RN, soos waargeneem in die RNAseq data, kon bewerkstellig het. RNAseq en miRNAseq analises in hierdie posttraumatiese stressindroom dieremodel het differensieël uitgedrukte gene en miRNAs geïdentifiseer wat dien om die verstaanswyse te verbreed van hoe DCS die vrees uitwissings proses fasiliteer. Die meganismes waardeur DCS vrees uitwissings bewerkstellig het sluit die verlaging van immuun-sisteem geen-uitdrukking in, sowel as verlaagde uitdrukking van gene wat pro-inflammatoriese en oksidatiewe stress gene transkribeer. DCS het daardeur neuro-inflammasie en gevolglike neurale skade voorkom. DCS het daarmee saam ook gene gereguleer wat betrokke is by leer en geheue prosesse. Hierdie gesamentlike veranderings in geen uitdrukking het gelei tot die uiteindelike bewerkstelling van optimale neurale funksionering, plastisiteit, leer en geheue prosesse wat uiteindelik bygedra het tot vrees uitwissing. Biologies relevante differensieël uitgedrukte gene wat ook geassosieer was met ander kondisies, soos middel verwante versteurings en metaboliese versteurings, kan help om die komorbiditeit met posttraumatiese stressindroom te verklaar. Identifisering van die molekulêre grondslae van DCS bemiddelde vrees uitwissing verbreed ons begrip en verstaan van vrees uitwissing en kan moontlik, in toekomstige navorsing gebruik word om nuwe innoverende terapeutiese teikens te verken om sodoende posttraumatiese stressindroom meer effektief te kan behandel.

N-methyl-D-asparate (NMDA) receptors located within the basolateral complex of the amygdala are required for the consolidation and expression of Pavlovian conditioned fear. The events downstream of receptor activation that mediate these processes are not well defined. An intermediate step that may be of significance is the synthesis of the gas nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide is synthesised as a result of NMDA receptor activation and acts as an unconventional neurotransmitter freely diffusing across cell membranes interacting with its targets in a non-synaptic manner. The targets of NO include cellular components that play significant roles during the consolidation of conditioned fear and the neurotransmission associated with its expression. This implies that NO may be an important intermediary of NMDA receptor activation and both these processes. The current study sought to examine this possibility using fear potentiated startle to examine the expression of learned fear. Three experiments were conducted, fifty rats received intra-BSC microinfusions of the global nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME either prior to fear conditioning, fear testing, or examination of the shock sensitization of the acoustic startle affect. The results indicated that NO was indeed required for both the consolidation and expression of learned fear, whereas it was not required for shock enhanced startle responding. This study provides new information about the sub-cellular basis of conditioned fear, and highlights the pivotal role played by NO in processes associated with conditioned fear.

Several studies have attempted to assess the effects of death anxiety upon personality and behavior. However, only recently has research on this topic begun to develop a larger theoretical context within which many behaviors and intrapsychic mechanisms can be explained. The present study was conducted to test the hypothesis that people's symbolic investments, such as religious beliefs and status, are inflated when an individual is faced with events which make their personal mortality salient. Theoretically this inflation would help them buffer their anxieties about death. Subjects were selected for participation on the basis of scores on measures of status concern and religiosity, and were assigned to a mortality salience treatment or control condition. Results suggest limited support for the hypothesis. Though all predictions were not confirmed, some intriguing findings are noted. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The mechanisms underlying cannabinoid impairment of fear memory is not clear. This study investigated the effects of the synthetic cannabinoid HU210 and the endocannabinoid hydrolysis inhibitor JZL 195 on fear memory following contextual fear conditioning (CFC; an animal model of fear). The long-term depression (LTD)-blocking peptide Tat-GluR2 was utilized to investigate whether the expression of cannabinoid-induced LTD (CB-LTD) is required for the cannabinoid impairment of acquisition and consolidation of contextual fear memory. HU210 reduced freezing throughout the test phase of the acquisition protocol, which was not affected by pre-administration of Tat-GluR2. High and moderate doses of HU210 reduced freezing during the first and last half, respectively, of the test phase of the consolidation protocol, which was prevented by pre-treatment with Tat-GluR2. HU210 did not affect freezing during the test phase of the retrieval protocol. Thus, these results suggest that HU210 impairs acquisition and consolidation, but not retrieval of contextual fear memory, and that in vivo CB-LTD expression is required for HU210 impairment of the consolidation, but not acquisition, of contextual fear memory. We also observed that HU210 and JZL 195 do not facilitate the acquisition of contextual fear memory extinction.

Many people who receive exposure-based treatments for anxiety disorders exhibit a return of fear and avoidance which is often referred to as renewal or relapse. Human and nonhuman research on fear conditioning and renewal has been instrumental in helping understand relapse in anxiety disorders. The purpose of this investigation was to examine renewal of human avoidance and assess whether avoidance may aid in sustaining renewal of fear responses. We adopted a multimodal measurement approach consisting of an approach-avoidance task along with ratings of perceived threat and fear and measures of skin-conductance, a widely used physiological measure of fear. A traditional, single-subject research design was used with six healthy adults. All tasks employed a discrete trial procedure. Experimental conditions included Pavlovian fear conditioning in which increased probability of money loss was paired with a “threat” meter in Context A and later followed extinction in Context B. Fear and avoidance increased to higher threat levels in Context A but not Context B. Renewal testing involved presenting the threat meter on a return to Context A to determine if it evoked fear and avoidance (i.e., relapse). As predicted, renewal testing in Context A showed that increased threat was associated with increased avoidance, ratings of perceived threat and fear, and higher skin-conductance. Moreover, results showed that renewal maintained over six blocks of trials. This is the first investigation of renewal of threat and avoidance in humans that highlights avoidance as a mechanism that may contribute to maintaining fear in anxiety pathology.

Thesis advisor: John P. Christianson / Trauma and exposure to extreme stressors greatly increases a person’s vulnerability to developing mental illnesses like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Patients with PTSD often have impaired fear and safety learning, and despite the fact that women are more than twice as likely to develop PTSD, much of the research on this disorder has relied on the use of male subjects. This paper will review potential contributors to the sex differences seen in PTSD and fear-related learning. Our group has found that female rats show greater fear discrimination abilities than their male counterparts, but show no difference in levels of safety learning. Analysis of specialized extracellular matrix structures called perineuronal nets (PNNs) revealed that females displayed a much higher density of PNNs in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) than males, but not in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). / Thesis (BS) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: Psychology.