The main aim of this paper was to find out if and how teachers in upper secondary school use oral feedback when they correct their students' oral mistakes. I also wanted to find out which approach the teachers find most useful and if they use different approaches depending on the error made by the student. I have found that the majority of the teachers find oral feedback as an important tool to help students achieve a higher proficiency in a second and foreign language. My results also show that feedback is most often used when the student makes errors regarding content and pronunciation. Most of my respondents are aware of the necessity of applying different feedback approaches to different errors made by the students. My investigation shows that teachers chose to give feedback on different occasions, both directly, but more commonly, indirectly, to a single student or later on to a full class. Most teachers also prefer a mix of feedback approaches depending on the specific student and situation. My intention with this study has also been to determine what factors influence the students' uptake. My respondents have, among several factors, stressed the importance of comfortable learning situations, students' personal interest and size of group.

Les interfaces cerveau-ordinateur basées sur l’imagerie mentale (MI-BCIs) offrent de nouvelles possibilités d’interaction avec les technologies numériques, telles que les neuroprothèses ou les jeux vidéo, uniquement en effectuant des tâches d’imagerie mentale, telles qu’imaginer d’un objet en rotation. La reconnaissance de la commande envoyée au système par l’utilisateur repose sur l’analyse de l’activité cérébrale de ce dernier. Les utilisateurs doivent apprendre à produire des patterns d’activité cérébrale reconnaissables par le système afin de contrôler les MI-BCIs. Cependant, les protocoles de formation actuels ne permettent pas à 10 à 30 % des personnes d’acquérir les compétences nécessaires pour utiliser les MI-BCIs. Ce manque de fiabilité des BCIs limite le développement de la technologie en dehors des laboratoires de recherche. Cette thèse a pour objectif d’examiner comment le feedback fourni tout au longde la formation peut être amélioré et adapté aux traits et aux états des utilisateurs. Dans un premier temps, nous examinons le rôle qui est actuellement donné au feedback dans les applications et les protocoles d’entraînement à l’utilisation des MI-BCIs. Nous analysons également les théories et les contributions expérimentales discutant de son rôle et de son utilité dans le processus d’apprentissage de contrôle de correlats neurophysiologiques. Ensuite, nous fournissons une analyse de l’utilité de différents feedback pour l’entraînement à l’utilisation des MI-BCIs. Nous nous concentrons sur trois caractéristiques principales du feedback, i.e., son contenu, sa modalité de présentation et enfin sa dimension temporelle. Pour chacune de ces caractéristiques, nous avons examiné la littérature afin d’évaluer quels types de feedback ont été testés et quel impact ils semblent avoir sur l’entraînement. Nous avons également analysé quels traits ou états des apprenants influaient sur les résultats de cet entraînement. En nous basant sur ces analyses de la littérature, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que différentes caractéristiques du feedback pourraient être exploitées afin d’améliorer l’entraînement en fonction des traits ou états des apprenants. Nous rapportons les résultats de nos contributions expérimentales pour chacune des caractéristiques du feedback. Enfin, nous présentons différentes recommandations et défis concernant chaque caractéristique du feedback. Des solutions potentielles sont proposées pour à l’avenir surmonter ces défis et répondre à ces recommandations. / Mental-Imagery based Brain-Computer Interfaces (MI-BCIs) present new opportunities to interact with digital technologies, such as neuroprostheses or videogames, only by performing mental imagery tasks, such as imagining an object rotating. The recognition of the command for the system is based on the analysis of the brain activity of the user. The users must learn to produce brain activity patterns that are recognizable by the system in order to control BCIs. However, current training protocols do not enable 10 to 30% of persons to acquire the skills required to use BCIs. The lack of robustness of BCIs limit the development of the technology outside of research laboratories. This thesis aims at investigating how the feedback provided throughout the training can be improved and adapted to the traits and states of the users. First, we investigate the role that feedback is currently given in MI-BCI applications and training protocols. We also analyse the theories and experimental contributions discussing its role and usefulness. Then, we review the different feedback that have been used to train MI-BCI users. We focus on three main characteristics of feedback, i.e., its content, its modality of presentation and finally its timing. For each of these characteristics, we reviewed the literature to assess which types of feedback have been tested and what is their impact on the training. We also analysed which traits or states of the learners were shown to influence BCI training outcome. Based on these reviews of the literature, we hypothesised that different characteristics of feedback could be leveraged to improve the training of the learners depending on either traits or states. We reported the results of our experimental contributions for each of the characteristics of feedback. Finally, we presented different recommendations and challenges regarding each characteristic of feedback. Potential solutions were proposed to meet these recommendations in the future.

Forskning om feedback har länge haft ett stort fokus på traditionell feedback inom organisationer, som sker från chef till medarbetare, och det har inte funnits ett lika starkt intresse för att studera feedback från medarbetare till chef, så kallad “upward feedback”, vilket gör det relevant att öka förståelsen inom detta område. Syftet med studien var att öka förståelsen för hur chefer använder feedback från medarbetare för att leda och utveckla verksamheten och sitt eget ledarskap. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats, vilket ligger till grund för insamling av data genom tio semistrukturerade intervjuer med chefer från sex olika organisationer för att studera deras perspektiv på upward feedback och hur de skapar organisatoriska förutsättningar för att ta tillvara medarbetares feedback för att leda verksamheten. Resultatet visade att efterfrågan av och mottaglighet för feedback (både negativ och positiv) är en utmanande uppgift och behöver därför tränas upp. Därtill identifieras tillitsfulla relationer, trygghet i ledarskap och öppna dialoger som förutsättningar för cheferna att öka sin mottaglighet och förmåga att ta tillvara feedback. Slutsatsen dras att trygga chefer med tillitsfulla relationer till sina medarbetare använder upward feedback för att utveckla sig själva som chefer, utveckla en hälsosam arbetsmiljö och lärandeinriktad arbetsplats. / Research about feedback has mainly focused on traditional feedback within organizations, that is, feedback from managers to their employees, and little research has been made to study upward feedback, from employees to their managers. This makes it relevant to increase our understanding within this area. The aim of this study was therefore to contribute to the understanding of how managers utilize upward feedback to lead and develop organizations and their leadership. The study has a qualitative approach, which impacted the decision to gather data through ten semi-structured interviews with managers from six different organizations, with the aim to raise awareness about their perspective on upward feedback and how they use it as part of their leadership. The findings showed that receptivity towards feedback (both positive and negative) is a challenging task and therefore needs practice. Moreover, trustworthy relationships, confidence in leadership and open dialogues are essential conditions for managers to increase their receptivity for upward feedback and are therefore central aspects in utilizing feedback in a more favorable way. A conclusion is made that confident managers with trusting relationships with their employees utilize upward feedback to develop as leaders, develop a healthy working environment and work towards a workplace that fosters learning.

Leadership development has become a focal area for most organisations today in an attempt to ensure that leaders are able to take them into the future and achieve a competitive advantage. Literature reveals that, among others, one of the most popular initiatives in leadership development includes the use 360-degree feedback. Due to the sensitivity and challenge of giving and receiving 360 degree feedback, it is essential to understand the subjective experience of manager's who have recently undergone the process as well as the factors which influence and are influenced by the process. To achieve this, a grounded theory study was conducted in a large manufacturing organisation. The data was collected through focus group interviews with a voluntary sample of senior managers who had participated in a 360 degree feedback process. The outcomes of the study include a definition of "subjective experience" as well as a substantive theory on the subjective experience of 360-degree feedback as a tool in leadership development. Findings indicate that individual's reactions coupled with the perception of both the accuracy and utility of the process are key contributors which form the essence of "subjective experience". Past experience, present information and context were further identified to be key intervening variables of a manager's subjective experience of 360-degree feedback as a tool in leadership development. A number of limitations within this study are explained and recommendations for future research and organisations are provided. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Comm. (Industrial Psychology)

This two-article dissertation summarizes the end-of-course survey and formative feedback literatures, as well as proposes actionability as a useful construct in the analysis of feedback from students captured in real-time during their courses. The present inquiry grew out of my work as the founder of DropThought Education, a Division of DropThought. DropThought Education was a student feedback system that helped instructional designers, instructors, and educational systems to use feedback from students to improve learning and student experience. To find out whether the DropThought style of feedback was more effective than other forms of capturing and analyzing student feedback, I needed to (1) examine the formative feedback literature and (2) test DropThought style feedback against traditional feedback forms. The method and theory proposed demonstrates that feedback from students can be specific and actionable when captured in the moment at students' activity level, in their own words. Application of the real-time feedback approach are relevant to practitioners and researchers alike, whether an instructor looking to improve her class activities, or a learning scientist carrying out interventionist, design-based research.

The influence of affective factors on learning has been studied by researchers in a range of disciplines, including within SLA research, where tests measuring anxiety specific to second language writing have been developed (Cheng, 2004). Recent studies on instructor perceptions show increasing numbers of second language learners (SLL) enrolled in mainstream university courses with instructors providing varying types of feedback to these learners. The current study investigates how the writing anxiety of second language learners in a mainstream context may relate to writing performance and how feedback anxiety resulting from one written assignment may be connected to writing performance on a subsequent assignment. Using modified writing anxiety survey instruments, 16 SLLs enrolled in two mainstream university English composition courses (taught by two instructors) completed two surveys, an informal interview, and an online questionnaire about feedback on two writing assignments prepared for their course; feedback and a grade from one assignment and a grade from a second assignment were also collected. Mainstream instructors were found to balance feedback provided to learners between content and organization feedback and grammatical feedback, similar to findings on feedback practices for second language instructors (Evans et al., 2010). Statistical analyses between survey results and grades revealed negative (non-statistically significant) correlations between anxiety scores (from surveys) and grades. Participants expressed 16 different emotions in response to feedback through qualitative data collection methods (open-ended survey questions, interviews, and online questionnaire); hope, acceptance, and anxiety were the three most commonly emotions reported. The number and complexity of emotional responses reported indicate that anxiety is only one of numerous responses to feedback and research on the effects of affective factors on learning may benefit from investigations of other emotions, including pleasant or positive emotions. Two data collection methods converged in reporting that nearly all participants made use of feedback through one or more forms of follow up action. Continued research into the complex emotions inspired by writing feedback may provide a deeper understanding of how SLLs may moderate their own emotional responses and provide instructors insight into additional factors that may affect learners’ writing performance. / Graduate / 0290 / amalec@uvic.ca

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of goal orientation on feedback seeking behaviors. While examining this, the effects of self-efficacy, feedback sign, and motives were considered to better understand how goal-orientation affects the way employees seek feedback. The secondary purpose was to investigate the effects of task characteristics (important/unimportant) and performance level (good/bad) on feedback seeking behaviors. A total of 204 people working in a wide range of organizations filled out the questionnaire. Participants rated the items measuring self-efficacy, goal-orientation, and feedback seeking motives. In addition, participants indicated how frequent they would demonstrate the feedback seeking behaviors listed in given two scenarios and four hypothetical situations. Learning-goal orientation predicted desire for useful information positively and defensive motive negatively. Performance-prove orientation predicted both desire for useful information, and defensive motive positively, and performance-avoid orientation predicted only defensive motive. Learning-goal orientation did not predict feedback seeking behaviors in both scenarios. However, performance-avoid orientation predicted longing for feedback negatively and feedback seeking through third parties, monitoring, and indirect inquiry positively in both positive and negative scenarios. However, the effects of self-efficacy and motives were not as expected. Self-efficacy did not moderate the relationship between goal-orientation and motives, and motives did not mediate the relationship between goal-orientation and feedback seeking behaviors with a few exceptions. Exploratory analysis revealed that task importance predicted the propensity of using specific feedback seeking methods, whereas performance expectancy predicted longing for feedback. The results are discussed with the implications, strengths, and limitations of the study. Some suggestions for future research are made.

Leadership development has become a focal area for most organisations today in an attempt to ensure that leaders are able to take them into the future and achieve a competitive advantage. Literature reveals that, among others, one of the most popular initiatives in leadership development includes the use 360-degree feedback. Due to the sensitivity and challenge of giving and receiving 360 degree feedback, it is essential to understand the subjective experience of manager's who have recently undergone the process as well as the factors which influence and are influenced by the process. To achieve this, a grounded theory study was conducted in a large manufacturing organisation. The data was collected through focus group interviews with a voluntary sample of senior managers who had participated in a 360 degree feedback process. The outcomes of the study include a definition of "subjective experience" as well as a substantive theory on the subjective experience of 360-degree feedback as a tool in leadership development. Findings indicate that individual's reactions coupled with the perception of both the accuracy and utility of the process are key contributors which form the essence of "subjective experience". Past experience, present information and context were further identified to be key intervening variables of a manager's subjective experience of 360-degree feedback as a tool in leadership development. A number of limitations within this study are explained and recommendations for future research and organisations are provided. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Comm. (Industrial Psychology)

The present licentiate thesis aims to investigate pupils’ understanding and use of teacher written feedback in English as a foreign language (EFL). The study was carried out in two Swedish lower secondary schools in two different classrooms, one in year eight with 14-year-old pupils and one in year nine with 15-year-old pupils. A case study research design was adopted to gain insights into nine pupils’ understand-ing and use of feedback. The three participants in year eight wrote ‘a letter to Barack Obama’ and received teacher written feedback in their draft texts and on a separate paper with individualized comments. The six pupils in year nine wrote about ‘mov-ies’ and received teacher written feedback in their draft texts but were also provided with a writing checklist. Data were collected from multiple sources but the data used for analysis were comprised of pupils’ draft and final version texts and pupil reflec-tive interviews.  The findings suggest that pupils understand many of the issues addressed by the teachers in their written feedback. Most pupils express their understanding using everyday language and by resorting to different strategies such as explaining why the feedback is provided, suggesting adequate changes or just by providing a correc-tion. However, it seems hard for a few pupils to understand the use of implicit types of written feedback. The results of the present study also suggest that it is hard to know a priori what pupils will experience as difficult to understand when it comes to the language used by the teachers in their written explanations. The findings further show that the majority of feedback points trigger pupils to make revision operations that involve major text-based changes. In other words pupils make more changes than those addressed in the teachers’ written feedback. The results also highlight that most pupils do not challenge their teachers’ feedback.  The findings of this study contribute to research on foreign language (FL) writing by providing insights from pupils’ perspectives and may fill a gap in the field of FL writing, since there are not many studies based on pupils’ perceptions. The context in which this study took place, lower secondary level and EFL in Sweden, also makes an additional contribution to the field of FL writing.

I denna kvalitativa intervjustudie har fyra gymnasielärare delat med sig av sina uppfattningar om användningen av skrivande och skriftlig korrigerande feedback som ett sätt att utveckla elevers grammatiska korrekthet. Studien visar att deltagarna anser att det är viktigt att integrera grammatikundervisningen med skrivande då det bland annat möjliggör individualisering. Vidare framkommer det att det finns ett större fokus på att rätta lokala fel än globala, och att omfattningen av feedback bör baseras på elevers kunskapsnivå. Lärarnas feedbackstrategier påverkas också av elevers kunskapsnivåer, men även felets komplexitet. Slutligen betonar lärarna att för att den skriftliga korrigerande feedbacken ska vara effektiv behöver eleverna få tid till att bearbeta den.