Expressing Causation in Czech and Spanish Language The subject of this thesis, as is evident from the title, consists in expression of causation in Spanish and its equivalents in the Czech language. We dealt with the issue of the causation in both formal and practical perspective. As a basic material, we have used not only Spanish, but also Czech philological publications. We based particularly on the article written by Petr Čermák and Pavel Štichauer called Španělské a italské faktitivní konstrukce hacer/fare + sloveso a jejich české ekvivalenty, as well as from selected chapters of Gramática descriptiva de la lengua española written by different authors. The work is divided into a theoretical part (Chapters 1-4) and a practical part (5-6). In introduction, we set ourselves the goals, we have outlined the research methodology using a parallel corpus InterCorp, which we described in detail. At the theoretical level, we discussed the question of the translation direction and its effect on our research. Furthermore, we defined the terms of causation, causative verb and factitiveness, factitive verb, to be able to continue working with it. We have commented the form of the causative verbs in Czech and their most distinctive features, including a test for distinguishing causative verbs from non-causative verbs....

Among Urdu’s many verb+verb constructions, this thesis focuses on those constructions, which combine the stem of a main content verb with another inflected verb which is used in a semantically bleached sense. Prior work on these constructions has been focused on their structural make-up and syntactic behavior in various environments. While there is consensus among scholars (Butt 1995, Hook 1977, Carnikova 1989, Porizka 2000 et al.) that these stem+verb constructions encode aspectual information, to date no clear theory has been put forward to explain the nature of their aspectual contribution. In short, we do not have a clear idea why these constructions are used instead of simple verbs. This work is an attempt to understand the precise function of these constructions. I propose that simple verbs (henceforth SV) in Urdu deal only with the action of the verb whereas (regardless of the semantic information contributed by the second inflected verb,1) the stem+verb constructions essentially deal with the action of the verb as well as the state of affairs resulting from this action. The event represented by these constructions is essentially a telic event as defined by Comrie (1976), whose resultant state is highlighted from the use of these constructions. The attention of the listener is then shifted to the result of this telic event, whose salience in the discourse is responsible for various interpretations of the event; hence my term ‘resultive construction’ (henceforth RC). When these constructions are made using the four special verbs (rah ‘stay’, sak ‘can’, paa ‘manage’ and cuk ‘finish’), the product is not resultive. Each of these verbs behaves differently and is somewhere between a resultive and an auxiliary verb construction. This work can be extended to other verb-verb construction in Urdu and other related and non-related languages as well. The analysis of the precise function of the RCs can also help in developing a model for them in various functional grammars. The proposed properties of RCs can be utilized in the semantic analysis of the Urdu quantifiers. This work should aid in identification and explanation of constructions in other languages, particularly those that are non-negatable under normal contexts. [1] All second inflected verbs with the exception of four special verbs rah ‘stay’, sak ‘can’, paa ‘manage’ and cuk ‘finish’. These four special verbs are either auxiliaries or modals as identified in prior literature.

L'étude porte sur la classe des verbes latins en -ficare, tels que aedifico « bâtir une maison » et amplifico « rendre ample ». Ce sont 150 verbes simples et 32 préverbés, répertoriés des premiers siècles de la latinité jusqu'à la mort d'Isidore de Séville, en 636. La mise au point du corpus est fondée sur une distinction concernant la structure morphologique des verbes, qui présentent en premier membre le thème d'un substantif (aedi-fico : aedes « maison ») ou d'un adjectif (ampli-fico : amplus « ample »). Une telle distinction s'est revélée cruciale, à la fois sur le plan sémantique et morphosyntaxique. L'alternance entre actif et déponent ne concerne pas les verbes à premier membre adjectival, mais la voix déponente est assignée à ceux des verbes pour lesquels il existe une construction à verbe-support, où facere [+ support] est associé au substantif à l'accusatif apparaissant en premier membre (par ex. paci-ficor « faire la paix » et pacem facere). Tous les verbes sont considérés comme des verbes composés et non comme des dérivés des adjectifs en -ficus correspondants, mais le premier membre est associable dans le type aedifico au complément d'objet, dans le type amplifico à l'attribut du complément d'objet du verbe facere de la locution verbo-nominale correspondante. Les verbes à premier membre adjectival sont toujours des factitifs, les verbes actifs à premier membre subtantival sont des causatifs, notamment des causatifs lexicaux (par ex. fumifico « faire de la fumée »), où le deuxième membre est associable à facere « produire ». Les verbes à premier membre adjectival, qui correspondent soit à des néologismes à l'intérieur du latin soit à des emprunts au grec, sont très bien représentés dans le latin des auteurs chrétiens et des ouvrages de médecine. / The aim of this study is to describe the class of Latin verbs in -ficare, such as aedifico ‘build a house’ and amplifico ‘amplify’. It examines 150 simple verbs and 32 preverbed verbs, collected from the first centuries of the Latin period to the death of Isidore of Seville in 636. The corpus is based on the morphological distinction between verbs whose first term is a noun stem (such as aedi-fico : aedes ‘house’) and verbs whose first term is an adjectival stem (ampli-fico : amplus ‘ample’). Such a distinction has proved to be crucial both morpho-syntactically and semantically. While the alternation between active voice and deponent voice is not shown in the verbs with an adjectival stem, the deponent voice is assigned to those verbs which coexist with a light verb construction, where facere [+ light verb] governs the noun in the accusative which appears as the first term (paci-ficor ‘to make peace’ and pacem facere). All verbs are interpreted as compound verbs, and not as derivatives from the adjectives in -ficus. In the verbs of the aedifico type, the first term can be associated with the direct object, while in the verbs of the amplifico type, the first term is associated with the predicative adjective of the direct object of facere within the correspondent noun-verb construction. The verbs with an adjectival stem as a first term are always factitive verbs, while the active verbs with a noun stem as a first-term are causatives and more specifically, lexical causatives (fumifico ‘make, produce smoke’), in which the second term is associated with facere ‘produce’. The verbs whose first term is an adjectival stem, which correspond to both neologisms in Latin and borrowings from Greek, are well represented in the Latin language used by Christian authors as well as medical texts.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre des travaux de révision de la structure de la racine sémitique en général, et arabe en particulier. Dans l’introduction, nous avons entamé une relecture critique des efforts des grammairiens arabes en quête du seuil minimal du sens, et qui ont abouti à poser la racine trilitère comme étant ce seuil ultime et inanalysable. Ce choix a été fait malgré tous les signes d’instabilité que comporte ce concept - tels que son incapacité à expliquer la réversibilité de l’ordre des consonnes et leur variation phonétique indépendamment du sens. C’est un choix synchronique anhistorique qui exclut la notion de temps, et émane d’une conception révélationniste (tawqîf) du langage. Au XIXe siècle, l'évolutionnisme darwiniste, étendu à la philologie, met à mal cette conception figée de la racine. En intégrant la notion de temps, nombre d’Orientalistes, suivis par quelques philologues arabes de l’époque, ont montré à travers une approche comparative que la racine trilitère est une forme évoluée d’une base primitive bilitère (ou monosyllabique). Depuis, plusieurs explications ont été proposées pour la formation de la racine trilitère à partir d’une base bilitère (croisement, incrémentation, affixation). Certains linguistes comme Hurwitz ont essayé d’identifier et de systématiser par déduction les éléments ternaires et leurs valeurs sémantiques. Dans notre travail, qui s'inscrit dans le cadre de la théorie des matrices et des étymons, nous démontrons à travers l’analyse synchronique de près de 1000 items que la racine trilitère est analysable en termes d’étymons bilitères et de créments, ou affixes. Les éléments affixables ou incrémentables à la base sont phonétiquement les mêmes (gutturales, sonantes, labiales, nasales) et corrélés souvent aux mêmes valeurs grammaticales (factitif, statif, moyen) ou sémantiques (l’intensif). La troisième position de la racine est la position privilégiée dans ce processus d’affixation/incrémentation. La racine trilitère n’est donc pas le seuil minimal du sens, et s’avère réductible à une base biconsonantique rendue trilitère grâce à un segment crément ou affixe. Ceci peut avoir un effet sur notre conception du lexique arabe, désormais réorganisable autour des bases bilitères soit abstraites (les traits phonétiques), soit concrètes (les étymons primitifs), qui sont à leur tour transformables en radicaux trilitères grâce à une liste préalable de créments et affixes spécifiant la signification primordiale véhiculée par la base bilitère. / This thesis is part of the revisionist work on the structure of the Semitic root in general, and the Arabic root in particular. In the introduction, we present a critical review of the efforts of Arab grammarians in their quest of a minimum linguistic threshold associated with meaning, a quest that resulted in establishing the triliteral root as the ultimate unanalysable unit. This choice was made despite the many obvious shortcomings of this theoretical framework, such as its inability to explain the reversal of the order of consonants, or their phonetic variation (regardless of its meaning). It is an anhistorical, synchronic choice that excludes the notion of time, and finds its roots in a revelationnist (tawqîf) linguistic framework. In the end of the nineteenth century, the extended Darwinist theory has undermined this static conception of the root. By integrating the notion of time, a number of Orientalists - followed by some Arab philologists of that period - showed, through a comparative methodology, that the triliteral root has evolved from a primitive monosyllabic (or biconsonantal) root. Since then, several explanations have been proposed for the formation of the triliteral root from a biliteral base (crossed bilateral roots, affixation of formative increments or determinatives).Some linguists, such as Hurwitz, tried to identify and to systematize by deduction the ternary elements and their semantic values. In this work, which is carried within the framework of the Matrix and Etymons Theory , we demonstrate through the synchronic analysis of nearly 1,000 trilateral items that the triliteral root is analyzable in terms of biliteral etymons and of separable increments or affixes added at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end (suffixation) of bilateral bases.The characteristic elements that can be affixed or incremented on the base are phonetically similar (gutturals, sonorants, labial, and some dentals) and correlated often with the same grammatical (factitive, stative, reflexive or middle voice) or semantic (intensive) values. The third position of the root is the position favored in this process of affixation / incrementation. Thus, the triliteral root is not the minimal threshold of meaning, and can be broken down to a biconsonantal base, which became triliteral thanks to an incremental or affixal segment. These findings may affect our perception of the Arabic lexicon, which can now be rearranged around biliterals bases, either abstract ( i.e. phonetic features), or concrete (i.e. historical primitive etymons) that are in turn convertible into triliteral radicals through a preliminary list increments and affixes that specify the primary meaning conveyed by the bilateral base.