Two different soils may be generated from open-pit mining: lumpy soils with a granular structure and clay mixtures, depending on the length of the conveyor belt and the strength of the original soils. Lumpy soils may be created for a high strength of the excavated soils. They are dumped as landfills without any compaction, which permits the water and air flows via the inter-lump voids. As a result, a new structure consisting of the lumps and reconstituted soil within the inter-lump voids can be created. However, if the original soil has a low strength or a long transportation takes place, the material may disintegrate into small lumps and thoroughly mix soils from different layers. Landfills consisting of clay mixtures arise in this way. The stability and deformation of landfills are crucial for design of occupied area and landfill slopes. For this reason, three different landfill materials will be investigated in this thesis: (1) the lumpy granular soil from fresh landfills, (2) the lumpy composite soil corresponding to old landfills and (3) clay mixtures. Firstly, an artificial lumpy soil was investigated. It is a transition form between the reconstituted and natural lumpy soils. Compression, permeability and strength of lumpy materials have been evaluated based on oedometer and triaxial tests. The shear strength of the normally consolidated lumpy specimens lies approximately on the Critical State Line of the reconstituted soil. The reconstituted soil, which exists in the inter-lump voids, plays a crucial role in the behaviour of artificial lumpy materials. Similarly to the artificial lumpy soil, inter-lump voids of the natural lumpy soil are mainly closed above a relatively small stress level, which is induced by the rearrangement of the lumps. However, its limit stress state is located above the Critical State Line of the reconstituted soil, which may be caused by the diagenetic soil structure in the natural lumps. The structure transition of the lumpy granular material can be divided into three possible stages related to the stress level. Firstly, the compressibility of a fresh lumpy is relativity high due to the closure of the inter-lump voids within a low stress range. In this stage, the hydraulic conductivity is mainly controlled by the inter-lump skeleton due to the existence of macro drainage paths, while the shear strength is controlled by the reconstituted soil around the lumps. Afterwards, its compressibility decreases with the consolidation stress and the soil behaves similarly to an overconsolidated soil. The clayfill appears to be uniform visually in this stage, but its structure is still highly heterogeneous and the hydraulic conductivity is higher than that of the reconstituted soil with the same overall specific volume. Finally, the loading reaches the preconsolidation stress of the lumps, and the whole soil volume becomes normally consolidated. Isotropically consolidated drained triaxial shear tests were performed on artificially prepared specimens with parallel and series structures. The laboratory tests show that the specimens with the series structure have the same failure mode as the constituent with the lower strength; the specimens with the parallel structure have a failure plane which crosses both constituents. As a result, the shear strength of the series specimens is only slightly higher than that of the constituent with the lower strength and the strength of the parallel specimens lies between those of the constituents. Afterwards, the behaviour of an artificial lumpy material with randomly distributed inclusions is investigated using the Finite Element Method. The computation results show that the stress ratio, defined as the ratio of the volume-average stress between the lumps and the reconstituted soil within the inter-lump voids, is significantly affected by both the volume fraction and the preconsolidation pressure of the lumps under an isotropic compression path, while the volume fraction of the lumps plays a minor role under a triaxial compression path. Based on the simulation results and analysis of the two basic configurations, a homogenization law was proposed utilizing the secant stiffnesses. The compression behavior of the lumpy composite soil was analyzed within the homogenization framework. Firstly, the volume of the composite soil was divided into four individual components. The inter-lump porosity was introduced to account for the evolution of the volume fractions of the constituents, and it was formulated as a function of the overall porosity and those of its constituents. A homogenization law was then proposed based on the analysis of the lumpy structure together with a numerical method, which gives a relationship for tangent stiffnesses of the lumpy soil and its constituents. Finally, a simple compression model was proposed for the composite lumpy material, which incorporates both the influence of the soil structure and the volume fraction change of the reconstituted soil. Furthermore, a general framework for the consolidation behaviour of the lumpy composite soil was proposed based on the double porosity concept and the homogenization theory. To describe the behaviour of lumps with low stress level, a new failure line was proposed with help of the equivalent Hvorslev pressure and critical state concept. The structure effect was incorporated into the nonlinear Hvorslev surface within sensitivity framework and the generalized Cam clay model proposed by McDowell and Hau (2003) was adopted on the wet side of the critical state. A secant stiffness, defined as the ratio between the deviatoric stress and deviatoric strain, was used in the homogenization law. Finally, a simple model for the natural lumpy soil was proposed within the homogenization framework. The physical properties, compression behaviour and remolded undrained shear strength of clay mixtures were investigated by reproducing the soils artificially in the lab. Afterwards, the models for the compression and undrained shear strength of clay mixtures were proposed. The model for the strength of the clay mixture originated from simplifying the structure of a clay mixture, in which the elements of the constituents are randomly distributed in a representative elementary volume. By defining a water content ratio (the ratio of water contents between the constituents), the undrained shear strength of each constituent was estimated separately and then combined together with corresponding volume fractions. A homogenization law was proposed afterwards based on the analysis of the randomly arranged structure. A simple compression model considering $N$ constituents was proposed within the homogenization framework, which was evaluated by a mixture with two constituents.:1 Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Lumpy soils as landfills 1.3 Clay mixtures as landfills 1.4 Objectives of this work 1.4.1 Lumpy granular structure 1.4.2 Lumpy composite structure 1.4.3 Clay mixtures 1.5 Structure of this study 2 Literature review 2.1 Fresh-lumpy soils 2.1.1 Structure of fresh-lumpy soils 2.1.2 Mechanical behaviour of fresh lumpy soils 2.2 Lumpy composite soils 2.2.1 Basic theory of inhomogeneous soils 2.2.2 Mechanical properties of stiff lumps with low stress level 2.2.3 Numerical and theoretical investigation 2.2.4 Consolidation behaviour of lumpy soils 3 Laboratory investigation of artificial lumpy materials 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Material properties and preparation of lumpy sample 3.3 Test procedures 3.3.1 Triaxial tests 3.3.2 Oedometer tests 3.4 Initial specific volume 3.5 Behaviour of the reconstituted soil 3.6 Behaviour of the lumpy material 3.6.1 Isotropic compression 3.6.2 Oedometer tests 3.6.3 Error analysis of the initial specific volume 3.6.4 Shear strength 3.6.5 Structure transition of lumpy material 3.7 Conclusions 4 Laboratory investigation of a natural lumpy soil 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Material properties and preparation of lumpy sample 4.3 Analysis of the test results 4.3.1 Reconstituted soil 4.3.2 Natural soil 4.3.3 Natural lumpy soil 4.3.4 Discussions on the shear strength of natural lumpy soil 4.4 Conclusions 5 Structure transition of lumpy materials 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Experimental investigation 5.2.1 Material properties and preparation of lumpy samples 5.2.2 Test results and data from literature 5.2.3 Structure transition of the lumpy material in oedometer test 5.2.4 Evolution of inter-lump voids of fresh lumpy soils 5.3 Interpretation of the structure transition of clayfills in the field 5.4 Conclusions 6 Two basic configurations for inhomogeneous soils 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Materials and sample preparation 6.3 Homogeneous soil 6.4 Inhomogeneous samples 6.5 Comparison between inhomogeneous and homogeneous samples 6.6 Numerical homogenization 6.7 Model application 6.8 Conclusions 7 Numerical simulation of lumpy composite soils 113 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Multiparticle generation and model calibration 7.2.1 Geometric model 7.2.2 Constitutive model for the constituents and its calibration 7.3 Numerical simulations 7.3.1 Stress distribution 7.4 A homogenization law for the stiffness of lumpy soils 7.4.1 One-dimensional model 7.4.2 General model 7.5 Homogenization law using the tangent stiffnesses under isotropic compression load 7.6 Conclusion 8 Compression behaviour of lumpy composite materials 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Experimental investigation 8.2.1 Material properties and preparation of lumpy sample 8.2.2 Test results 8.3 A compression model for lumpy soils 8.3.1 Volume divisions 8.3.2 Definitions of stresses and strains 8.3.3 Constitutive equations for the constituents 8.3.4 A homogenization law for the tangent stiffness of lumpy composite soil 8.3.5 Compression model for the lumpy composite soil 8.4 Application of the model to experimental data 8.4.1 Model parameters 8.4.2 Simulation of oedometric compression 8.4.3 Evaluation of model predictions 8.4.4 An improvement of the model 8.5 Conclusions 9 Consolidation behaviour of lumpy composite soils 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Basic components for the model 9.2.1 Volume groups of the lumpy soil 9.2.2 Stress and strain distributions for the lumpy soil 9.2.3 Permeability properties of the constituents 9.3 Derivation of the governing equations 9.3.1 Mass balance equations 9.3.2 Equilibrium differential equation 9.3.3 Simplification of the model 9.4 Finite element analysis 9.5 Model parameters and sensitivity analysis 9.6 Model evaluation 9.7 Conclusions 10 A double logarithmic Hvorslev surface 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Laboratory investigations 10.2.1 Material and test procedures 10.2.2 Test results and analysis 10.3 Double logarithmic Hvorslev surface 10.4 Full constitutive model 10.4.1 Elastic behaviour 10.4.2 The yield and plastic potential surfaces 10.4.3 Hardening parameter 10.5 Analysis of the model and its evaluation 10.5.1 Model parameters 10.5.2 Evaluation of the model 10.6 Conclusions 11 A simple model for natural lumpy composite soils 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Lumpy soil as a composite material 11.2.1 Volume fraction of reconstituted soil in lumpy composite soils 11.2.2 Definitions of stresses and strains 11.3 Constitutive equations for the constituents 11.3.1 Elastic behaviour 11.3.2 Hvorslev surface incorporating structure effect 11.3.3 Yield and Potential surfaces for natural lumps 11.3.4 Hardening rule and full constitutive model for natural lumps 11.3.5 Simplification of the model 11.4 Proposed model for lumpy composite soils 11.4.1 A homogenization law for lumpy composite soil 11.4.2 General model 11.5 Application of the model 11.5.1 Evaluation of nonlinear Hvorslev surface for natural stiff soils 11.5.2 Laboratory investigations of a natural lumpy soil 11.5.3 Model parameters 11.5.4 Model procedures 11.5.5 Model evaluations 11.6 Conclusions 12 Compression and undrained shear strength of remolded clay mixtures 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Materials and sample preparation 12.3 Compression behaviour of the mixed soil 12.4 Remolded shear strength of the clay mixtures 12.5 Conclusions 13 Undrained shear strength and water content distribution 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Structure of a clay mixture 13.3 Proposed model 13.3.1 Water content distribution 13.3.2 Undrained shear strength and liquid limit of a clay mixture 13.4 Model evaluation 14 Compression behaviour of remolded clay mixtures 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Initial water content distribution 14.3 Volume fractions and stress ratios of the constituents 14.4 Reference model for the constituents 14.4.1 A homogenization law for the tangent stiffness of the clay mixtures 14.4.2 Compression model for the clay mixtures 14.5 Validation of the proposed model 14.5.1 Model parameters 14.5.2 Simulation procedure 14.5.3 Evaluation of the model 14.6 Sensitivity analysis 14.7 Summary and conclusions 15 Summary and recommendations 15.1 Lumpy granular soils 15.2 Lumpy composite soils 15.3 Clay mixtures 15.4 Outlook and recommendations Bibliography Notations Appendices A Shear strength of the series specimens A.1 Considering the influence of the shear plane A.2 Considering the influence of nonuniform deformation B Compression curves of soil mixtures / In einem Tagebau können die feinkörnigen Böden in unterschiedlichen Zustandsformen entstehen. Dies sind zum einen klumpige Böden mit einer granular ähnlichen Struktur (Pseudokornstruktur) und einer hohen Konsistenzzahl und zum anderen Mischungen aus mehreren Tonen oder Schluffen mit niedriger Konsistenzzahl. Der Zustand wird dabei massgebend von dem Transport (z.B. Länge des Förderbandes) und dem Ausgangszustand (z.B. der Anfangsscherfestigkeit) beeinflusst. Klumpige Böden entstehen bei der Abbaggerung des natürlichen Materials auf der Abbauseite, welches eine hohe Festigkeit besitzt. Alle Böden werden normalerweise ohne Verdichtung verkippt, so entstehen bei der Verkippung von klumpigen Böden grosse Makro-Porenräume zwischen den Klumpen, welche sehr luft- bzw. wasserdurchlässig sind. Nach einiger Zeit entsteht eine neue Struktur aus den Klumpen und dem Material des sich von aussen auflösenden Klumpens, welches das Füllmaterial bildet. Wenn die Festigkeit des Ausgangsmaterials niedrig ist oder lange Transportwege stattfinden, zerfallen die Klumpen. Zudem werden die Böden von verschiedenen Schichten der Abbauseite unter einander gemischt, wodurch die Tongemische entstehen. Sowohl für die Dimensionierung und Berechnung der aus den Verkippungen entstehenden Tagebaurandböschungen sowie für eine spätere Nutzung des ehemaligen Tagebaugebietes ist die Kenntnisüber das Deformations- und Verformungsverhalten von Kippenböden notwendig. Daher wurden in dieser Arbeit Tagebauböden und ihr zeitlich veränderliches Verhalten untersucht. Dabei werden diese, bezugnehmend auf den Anfangszustand, in drei typische Materialien unterschieden: (1) der frisch verkippte klumpige Boden, (2) eine Mischung aus Klumpen und Füllmaterial, welche höhere Liegezeiten repräsentiert und (3) Mischungen von feinkörnigen Ausgangsböden. Zunächst wurden künstlich hergestellte klumpige Böden untersucht. Sie bilden eine Übergangsform zwischen aufbereiteten und natürlichen klumpigen Böden. Das Kompressions- und Scherverhalten sowie die Durchlässigkeit wurden an Ödometer und Triaxialversuchen bestimmt. Das Füllmaterial, welches die Makroporen zwischen den Klumpen füllt, spielt eine entscheidende Rolle für das Materialverhalten. Ähnlich wie bei den künstlich hergestellten klumpigen Böden schliessen sich auch bei den Böden im Tagebau die Makroporenschen bei niedrigen Spannungen. Dabei werden die Klumpen umgelagert. Allerdings befindet sich die Grenze des Spannungszustandes oberhalb der Critical State Line des Füllmaterials, was möglicherweise mit den unter Diagenese entstandenen Bodenstrukturen erklärt werden kann. Die Strukturänderung der klumpigen Böden kann aufgrund des Spannungsniveaus in drei mögliche Stufen unterteilt werden. Am Anfang ist die Kompressibilität der frischen verkippten Klumpen hoch, da sich die Makroporen bereits bei geringen Spannungen schliessen. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt sind auch die Durchlässigkeiten in erster Linie von den grossen Porenräumen der Makroporen, welche als Entwässerungspfade dienen, beeinflusst. Die Scherfestigkeit hingegen, wird durch die aufgeweichten Böden an den Oberflächen der Klumpen massgebend beeinflusst. Bei höheren Konsolidationspannungen sinkt die Kompressibilität und der Boden verhält sich wie einüberkonsolidierter Boden. Obwohl die Struktur aufgrund der veränderten Klumpenoberflächen zu diesem Zeitpunkt homogener wirkt, ist die Struktur noch heterogen und die Durchlässigkeit ist höher als bei einem aufbereiteten Boden mit gleichem spezifischem Volumen (Porenzahl). Letztendlich erreicht der aktuelle Spannungszustand den derüberkonsolidierten Klumpen und der gesamte Boden verhält sich wie ein normal konsolidierter Boden. Des Weiteren wurden isotrop konsolidierte drainierte Triaxialversuche an künstlich aus zwei Ausgangsmaterialien hergestellten Proben mit parallelen und seriellen Strukturen durchgeführt. Die Laborversuche zeigten, dass die Proben mit seriellem Aufbau dieselben Gleitflächen haben, wie der Ausgangsboden mit der niedrigeren Scherfestigkeit. Die Gleitfläche der Proben mit parallelen Strukturen verlief durch beide Materialien. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Scherfestigkeit der seriell aufgebauten Proben geringfügig höher, als die des Bodens mit der niedrigeren Scherfestigkeit ist. Die Scherfestigkeit der parallel aufgebauten Proben liegt zwischen den beiden Ausgangsmaterialien. Danach wurde das Verhalten der künstlich erzeugten klumpigen Böden mit zufällig verteiltem Füllmaterial mit Hilfe der Finiten Elemente Methode verglichen. Die Simulationen zeigten, dass unter einer isotropen Kompressionsbelastung das Spannungsverhältnis, definiert aus dem Verhältnis der Spannung des Volumendurchschnitts zwischen den Klumpen und dem Füllmaterial, deutlich durch die Volumenanteile und die Vorkonsoliderungsspannung der Klumpen beeinflusst wird. Während das Volumenverhältnis eine untergeordnete Rolle in den in Triaxialzellen unter Scherung belasteten Proben spielt. Aus den Simulationsergebnissen und den Laborversuchen der beiden Grundkonfigurationen wurde ein Homogenisierungsgesetz abgeleitet, welches die Sekandensteifigkeiten verwendet. Das Kompressionsverhalten der Mischungen aus Klumpen und Füllmaterial wurde mit Blick auf die Homogenisierung analysiert. Zunächst kann das Volumen der Mischungen in 4 individuelle Komponentenanteile zerlegt werden. Die Makroporosität zwischen den Klumpen wurde zur Entwicklung der Volumenanteile des Füllmaterials eingeführt. Sie wurde als eine Funktion der totalen Porosität und der Materialien formuliert. Auf Grundlage einer theoretischen Analyse an klumpigen Böden und unter Zuhilfenahme einer numerischen Methode wird ein Gesetz zur Homogenisierung vorgeschlagen. Dieses enthält eine Beziehung zwischen der Tagentensteifigkeit der Klumpen und seinem Füllmaterial. Abschliessend wird ein einfaches Kompressionsmodel für die Mischung aus Klumpen und Füllmaterial vorgeschlagen, welches den Einfluss der Bodenstruktur und der Änderung des Volumenanteils des Füllmaterials berücksichtigt. Darüber hinaus wurde eine allgemeine Formulierung für das Konsolidationsverhalten der klumpigen Böden mit Füllmaterial vorgeschlagen, welche sich auf das Konzept der doppelten Porosität (Klumpen und Füllmaterial) und eine Homogenisierungstheoerie bezieht. Um das Verhalten der Klumpen bei niedrigen Spannungen zu beschreiben, wird eine neue Grenzbedingung unter Zuhilfenahme der äquivalenten Hvorslev-Spannung und des Criticial State Konzeptes vorgeschlagen. Der Struktureffekt für sensitive Böden wurde in die nichtlineare Hvorslev-Oberfläche eingebaut. Das allgemein gültige Cam-Clay-Model von McDowell und Hau (2003) wurde um die nasse Seite des Critical State Konzeptes erweitert. Eine Sekandensteifigkeit, definiert aus dem Verhältnis zwischen der Deviatorspannung und der Deviatordehnung, wurde für das Homogenisieurungsgesetz ebenfalls verwendet. Abschliessend wird ein Modell für natürliche klumpige Böden vorgestellt, welches auch eine Homogenisierung beinhaltet. Die physikalischen Eigenschaften, das Kompressionsverhalten und die undrainierten Scherfestigkeiten von aufbereiten Tongemischen wurden im Labor unter Herstellung künstlicher Bödengemische untersucht. Anschliessend wurde ein Kompressions- und Schermodell für aufbereitete Tongemische vorgeschlagen. Das Modell der Scherfestigkeit der Tongemische entstand aus der Vereinfachung der Tongemischstruktur, in welcher die Elemente der Ausgangsmaterialien zufällig in dem Einheitsvolumen verteilt sind. Werden Wassergehaltsverhältnisse (das Verhältnis der Wassergehalte der Ausgangsmaterialien) definiert, kann die undrainierte Scherfestigkeit für alle Bestandteile separat geschätzt werden und dannüber die Volumenanteile bestimmt werden. Ein Homogenisierungsgesetz wurde auf Grundlage der theoretischen Analyse von zufällig angeordneten Strukturen entwickelt. Ein einfaches Kompressionsmodell, welches N-Ausgangsmaterielien bzw. Tone und eine Homogenisierung enthält, wird vorgeschlagen, und an einer Mischung aus 2 Bestandteilen im Labor validiert.:1 Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Lumpy soils as landfills 1.3 Clay mixtures as landfills 1.4 Objectives of this work 1.4.1 Lumpy granular structure 1.4.2 Lumpy composite structure 1.4.3 Clay mixtures 1.5 Structure of this study 2 Literature review 2.1 Fresh-lumpy soils 2.1.1 Structure of fresh-lumpy soils 2.1.2 Mechanical behaviour of fresh lumpy soils 2.2 Lumpy composite soils 2.2.1 Basic theory of inhomogeneous soils 2.2.2 Mechanical properties of stiff lumps with low stress level 2.2.3 Numerical and theoretical investigation 2.2.4 Consolidation behaviour of lumpy soils 3 Laboratory investigation of artificial lumpy materials 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Material properties and preparation of lumpy sample 3.3 Test procedures 3.3.1 Triaxial tests 3.3.2 Oedometer tests 3.4 Initial specific volume 3.5 Behaviour of the reconstituted soil 3.6 Behaviour of the lumpy material 3.6.1 Isotropic compression 3.6.2 Oedometer tests 3.6.3 Error analysis of the initial specific volume 3.6.4 Shear strength 3.6.5 Structure transition of lumpy material 3.7 Conclusions 4 Laboratory investigation of a natural lumpy soil 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Material properties and preparation of lumpy sample 4.3 Analysis of the test results 4.3.1 Reconstituted soil 4.3.2 Natural soil 4.3.3 Natural lumpy soil 4.3.4 Discussions on the shear strength of natural lumpy soil 4.4 Conclusions 5 Structure transition of lumpy materials 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Experimental investigation 5.2.1 Material properties and preparation of lumpy samples 5.2.2 Test results and data from literature 5.2.3 Structure transition of the lumpy material in oedometer test 5.2.4 Evolution of inter-lump voids of fresh lumpy soils 5.3 Interpretation of the structure transition of clayfills in the field 5.4 Conclusions 6 Two basic configurations for inhomogeneous soils 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Materials and sample preparation 6.3 Homogeneous soil 6.4 Inhomogeneous samples 6.5 Comparison between inhomogeneous and homogeneous samples 6.6 Numerical homogenization 6.7 Model application 6.8 Conclusions 7 Numerical simulation of lumpy composite soils 113 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Multiparticle generation and model calibration 7.2.1 Geometric model 7.2.2 Constitutive model for the constituents and its calibration 7.3 Numerical simulations 7.3.1 Stress distribution 7.4 A homogenization law for the stiffness of lumpy soils 7.4.1 One-dimensional model 7.4.2 General model 7.5 Homogenization law using the tangent stiffnesses under isotropic compression load 7.6 Conclusion 8 Compression behaviour of lumpy composite materials 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Experimental investigation 8.2.1 Material properties and preparation of lumpy sample 8.2.2 Test results 8.3 A compression model for lumpy soils 8.3.1 Volume divisions 8.3.2 Definitions of stresses and strains 8.3.3 Constitutive equations for the constituents 8.3.4 A homogenization law for the tangent stiffness of lumpy composite soil 8.3.5 Compression model for the lumpy composite soil 8.4 Application of the model to experimental data 8.4.1 Model parameters 8.4.2 Simulation of oedometric compression 8.4.3 Evaluation of model predictions 8.4.4 An improvement of the model 8.5 Conclusions 9 Consolidation behaviour of lumpy composite soils 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Basic components for the model 9.2.1 Volume groups of the lumpy soil 9.2.2 Stress and strain distributions for the lumpy soil 9.2.3 Permeability properties of the constituents 9.3 Derivation of the governing equations 9.3.1 Mass balance equations 9.3.2 Equilibrium differential equation 9.3.3 Simplification of the model 9.4 Finite element analysis 9.5 Model parameters and sensitivity analysis 9.6 Model evaluation 9.7 Conclusions 10 A double logarithmic Hvorslev surface 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Laboratory investigations 10.2.1 Material and test procedures 10.2.2 Test results and analysis 10.3 Double logarithmic Hvorslev surface 10.4 Full constitutive model 10.4.1 Elastic behaviour 10.4.2 The yield and plastic potential surfaces 10.4.3 Hardening parameter 10.5 Analysis of the model and its evaluation 10.5.1 Model parameters 10.5.2 Evaluation of the model 10.6 Conclusions 11 A simple model for natural lumpy composite soils 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Lumpy soil as a composite material 11.2.1 Volume fraction of reconstituted soil in lumpy composite soils 11.2.2 Definitions of stresses and strains 11.3 Constitutive equations for the constituents 11.3.1 Elastic behaviour 11.3.2 Hvorslev surface incorporating structure effect 11.3.3 Yield and Potential surfaces for natural lumps 11.3.4 Hardening rule and full constitutive model for natural lumps 11.3.5 Simplification of the model 11.4 Proposed model for lumpy composite soils 11.4.1 A homogenization law for lumpy composite soil 11.4.2 General model 11.5 Application of the model 11.5.1 Evaluation of nonlinear Hvorslev surface for natural stiff soils 11.5.2 Laboratory investigations of a natural lumpy soil 11.5.3 Model parameters 11.5.4 Model procedures 11.5.5 Model evaluations 11.6 Conclusions 12 Compression and undrained shear strength of remolded clay mixtures 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Materials and sample preparation 12.3 Compression behaviour of the mixed soil 12.4 Remolded shear strength of the clay mixtures 12.5 Conclusions 13 Undrained shear strength and water content distribution 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Structure of a clay mixture 13.3 Proposed model 13.3.1 Water content distribution 13.3.2 Undrained shear strength and liquid limit of a clay mixture 13.4 Model evaluation 14 Compression behaviour of remolded clay mixtures 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Initial water content distribution 14.3 Volume fractions and stress ratios of the constituents 14.4 Reference model for the constituents 14.4.1 A homogenization law for the tangent stiffness of the clay mixtures 14.4.2 Compression model for the clay mixtures 14.5 Validation of the proposed model 14.5.1 Model parameters 14.5.2 Simulation procedure 14.5.3 Evaluation of the model 14.6 Sensitivity analysis 14.7 Summary and conclusions 15 Summary and recommendations 15.1 Lumpy granular soils 15.2 Lumpy composite soils 15.3 Clay mixtures 15.4 Outlook and recommendations Bibliography Notations Appendices A Shear strength of the series specimens A.1 Considering the influence of the shear plane A.2 Considering the influence of nonuniform deformation B Compression curves of soil mixtures

In the present thesis the crack propagation in the ductile-brittle transition region is studied on two scales with deterministic models. In the macroscopic model the ductile failure is described by a non-local Gurson-model whereas the discrete void microstructure is resolved around the crack tip in the microscopic model. The failure by cleavage is not evaluated by means of a post-processing criterion but is modeled equivalently using a cohesive zone model on both scales. Thus, cleavage is not a priori identified with unstable crack propagation but the transition between stable and unstable mode of propagation is a result of the simulation. The problem of handling completely failed material within the framework of non-local damage models is pointed out. A method to overcome this problem is proposed and successfully applied. The case of contained plastic yielding at the crack tip is addressed with a modified-boundary layer model. The macroscopic simulations reproduce many features which are known from experiments like the formation of stretch zones, cleavage after initial ductile tearing, pop-ins with crack arrest, among others. The microscopic simulations substantiate the understanding of the macroscopically observed behavior. Systematic parameter studies are performed. Starting with considerations on the limit cases like pure ductile failure or the lower-ductile brittle transition region allows to separate the effects of the different constitutive parameters. Based on these results, a methodology is proposed to extract the macroscopic material parameters from experiments. This scheme is successfully applied to experimental data from literature. The results show that the behavior of a low-constraint specimen can be reliably predicted with the parameters extracted from a high-constraint specimen. / In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Rissausbreitung im spröd-duktilen Übergangsbereich auf zwei Skalen mittels deterministischer Modelle untersucht. Das duktile Versagen wird im makroskopischen Modell durch ein nichtlokales Gurson-Modell beschrieben, während im mikroskopischen Modell die Porenmikrostruktur im Bereich um die Rissspitze diskret aufgelöst wird. Das mögliche Versagen durch Spaltbruch wird nicht, wie üblich, nachträglich durch ein spannungsbasiertes Kriterium bewertet. Stattdessen wird der Spaltbruch auf beiden Skalen durch ein Kohäsivzonenmodell abgebildet. Somit wird die Spaltbruchinitiierung nicht a priori mit instabiler Rissausbreitung gleichgesetzt. Vielmehr ist die Stabilität der Rissausbreitung ein Ergebnis der Simulationen. Außerdem wird das Problem der der Handhabung vollständig ausgefallenen Materials im Rahmen nichtlokaler Schädigungsmodelle herausgestellt. Es wird eine Methode vorgestellt, dieses Problem zu behandeln und erfolgreich angewendet. In den Simulationen wird der Fall vollständig eingebetteten, plastischen Fließens untersucht. Die Simulationen mit dem makroskopischen Modell geben viele Effekte wieder, die aus Experimenten bekannt sind. Dazu zählen die Ausbildung von Stretchzonen, die Spaltbruchinitiierung nach anfänglichem, duktilem Reißen oder lokale Instabilitäten mit Rissarrest. Die mikroskopischen Simulationen tragen zum Verständnis des makroskopisch beobachteten Verhaltens bei. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden systematische Parameterstudien durchgeführt. Zunächst werden Grenzfälle wie das rein duktile Versagens oder der Spaltbruch in Abwesenheit der Mikroporen untersucht, um die Einflüsse der einzelnen Materialparameter abzugrenzen. Ausgehend von diesen Ergebnissen wird eine Prozedur vorgeschlagen, die Materialparameter des makroskopischen Modells Schritt für Schritt aus Experimenten zu bestimmen. Diese Prozedur wird erfolgreich auf experimentelle Daten aus der Literatur angewendet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es das entwickelte Modell erlaubt, das Verhalten einer Bruchmechanikprobe mit geringer Dehnungsbehinderung an der Rissspitze mit denjenigen Materialparametern vorherzusagen, die an Proben mit einer hohen Dehnungsbehinderung ermittelt wurden.

Asphalt joints are potentially weakest parts of every pavement. Despite of their importance, reliable tools for measuring their mechanical properties for design and performance assessments are still scarce. This is particularly true for cold joints when attaching a new hot pavement to a cold existing one as in case of large patches for pavement repair. In this study, three static fracture testing methods, i.e. indirect tensile test (IDT), direct tension test (DTT) and 4 point bending (4PB), were adapted and used for evaluating different laboratory made joints. The results suggested that joints with inclined interfaces and also the ones with combined interface treatments (preheated and sealed) seemed to show more promising behaviors than the vertical and untreated joints. It was also confirmed that compacting from the hot side towards the joint improved the joint properties due to imposing a different flow pattern as compared to the frequent compaction methods. The latter finding highlighted the importance of asphalt particle rearrangements and flow during the compaction phase as a very little known subject in asphalt industry. Studies on compaction are of special practical importance since they may also contribute to reducing the possibility of over-compaction and aggregate crushing. Therefore, in this study, a new test method, i.e. Flow Test (FT), was developed to simulate the material flow during compaction. Initially, asphalt materials were substituted by geometrically simple model materials to lower the level of complexity for checking the feasibility of the test method as well as modeling purposes. X-ray radiography images were also used for capturing the flow patterns during the test. Results of the FT on model materials showed the capability of the test method to clearly distinguish between specimens with different characteristics. In addition, a simple discrete element model was applied for a better understanding of the test results as a basis for further improvements when studying real mixtures. Then, real mixtures were prepared and tested under the same FT configuration and the results were found to support the findings from the feasibility tests. The test method also showed its potential for capturing flow pattern differences among different mixtures even without using the X-ray. Therefore, the FT was improved as an attempt towards developing a systematic workability test method focusing on the flow of particles at early stages of compaction and was called the Compaction Flow Test (CFT). The CFT was used for testing mixtures with different characteristics to identify the parameters with highest impact on the asphalt particle movements under compaction forces. X-ray investigations during the CFT underlined the reliability of the CFT results. In addition, simple discrete element models were successfully generated to justify some of the CFT results. / <p>QC 20151104</p>

I byggbranschen har nya metoder för lastanalys utvecklats och digitaliserats med hjälp av datorer och kraftfulla analysprogram. En stor del av dagens lastanalys utförs med hjälp av FEM baserade program. Dessa program bidrar till mer tidsbesparing och större noggrannhet.FEM-Design är ett FEM baserad analys program som kan hantera olika typer konstruktioner. Trots detta är inte programmet tillräckligt lämpat för brodimensionering när det gäller trafiklaster på broar. Konstruktören behöver därför gå igenom Eurokods-och Trafikverkets regler och krav för att hitta information kring trafikaster och därefter skapa dem i programmet.För att kunna utnyttja programmets kraftiga funktioner och anpassa det mer för brodimensionering, behöver programmet kompletteras med nya funktioner som underlättar hantering av rörliga laster. Målet var att undersöka olika lastmodeller enligt Eurokoden och TRVFS, och skapa dem i FEM-Design. Dessutom peka ut vilka förbättringar som kan utföras i programmet för att underlätta hantering av dessa trafiklaster.Tillsammans med StruSoft AB utfördes lastdefinitioner av Lastmodell 1, Lastmodell 2, och Lastmodell 3 i programmet FEM-Design.Resultatet av arbetet visar en mängd nya fordonslaster som definierades i programmet och som är baserade på det europeiska Eurokoden, och inhemska krav.Programmet FEM-Design går framgångsrikt att göras mer praktisk för brodimensioneringar. Med fortsatta studier, extra funktioner, och mer lastmodell-definitioner har FEM-Design potentialen att även konkurrera med andra bro-program. / In the construction industry, new methods of load analysis have been developed and digitized using computers and powerful analysis programs. A large part of today's load analysis is performed using FEM based programs, which contributes to time saving and greater accuracy.FEM-Design is a FEM based analysis program that can handle different types of constructions. Nevertheless, the program is not sufficiently applied to bridge dimensioning when it comes to traffic loads on bridges. The designer therefore needs to review the Eurocode rules and national requirements in order to find information about the moving loads and then define them in the program.In order to utilize the program's powerful features and suit it more for bridge dimensioning, the program needs to be complemented with new features that will facilitate the handling of moving loads. The goal was to examine the different load models according to the Eurocode and TRVFS, and creates them in FEM Design. In addition, identify which improvements can be made to the program to facilitate the handling of the traffic loads.Together with StruSoft AB, load definitions of Load model 1, Load model 2, and Load model 3 were performed in the FEM-Design program.The result of the work shows a number of new vehicle loads as defined in the program, which are based on the European Eurocode, and the country's special requirements.The program can successfully be made more practical for bridge constructions. With continued studies, additional features, and more load model definitions, FEM-Design has the potential to compete with other bridge programs.

Scania, ett världsledande företag inom lastbils- och busstillverkning, strävar efter att skapa hållbara och miljövänliga produkter genom noggrann forskning och testning. Denna rapport fokuserar på att mäta de dynamiska lasterna på en kingpin, en komponent som förbinder den dragande lastbilen med trailern. All horisontell kraft överförs via kingpin, vilket gör den avgörande för lastbilens säkerhet. Standardiserade tester säkerställer att komponenterna i kopplingen är tillräckligt starka för att klara de belastningar de utsätts för. Målet med detta examensarbete är att utveckla en mätmetod för att mäta de horisontella krafterna. Denna kunskap kommer att möjliggöra utvecklingen av både fysiska och virtuella provmetoder. Mätningen av dynamiska laster på en kingpin har alltid varit utmanande på grund av dess konstruktion, som är kort och har tre hävarmar som ständigt växlar mellan lasterna. Genom att förstå kraftöverföringen mellan lastbilen och trailern kan man möjliggöra vidareutveckling, såsom optimering av energi och effektivitet på till exempel eldrivna lastbilar. I detta projekt undersöktes olika metoder för att mäta lasterna på kingpin med hjälp av en chassi hållfasthetstestrigg (CH2-testrigg). Fördelen med CH2-testriggen är att lastbilsramen inte roterar, vilket underlättar utvecklingen av lösningar som är svåra att tillämpa vid verklig körning. Ett hinder för att bedöma lösningsförslagets praktiska effektivitet är om kingpinnen får tillräckliga töjningar på grund av sin komplexa konstruktion. Därför testades ett förenklat koncept med enbart en enkel töjningsgivare för att för att undersöka denna problematik. Resultatet visade att kingpinen fick tillräckliga töjningar, vilket innebär att ett mer avancerat koncept som ger mer detaljerade och noggrannare resultat nu kan genomföras. / Scania, a world-leading company in truck and bus manufacturing, strives to create sustainable and environmentally friendly products through careful research and testing. This report focuses on measuring the dynamic loads on a kingpin, a component that connects the towing truck to the trailer. All horizontal force is transmitted via the kingpin, making it essential for the safety of the truck. Standardized tests ensure that the strength of the coupling components is sufficient to withstand the loads they are subjected to. The aim of this thesis is to develop a measurement method for measuring the horizontal forces. This knowledge will enable the development of both physical and virtual testing methods. Measuring dynamic loads on a kingpin has always been challenging due to its design, which is short and has three levers that constantly switch between loads. Understanding the force transmission between the truck and the trailer can facilitate further development, such as optimizing energy and efficiency in electric trucks. In this project, various methods were investigated to measure the loads on the kingpin using a chassis strength test rig (CH2 test rig). The advantage of the CH2 test rig is that the truck frame does not rotate, which facilitates the development of solutions that are difficult to apply in real driving conditions. A challenge in assessing the practical effectiveness of the proposed solution is whether the kingpin experiences sufficient strains due to its complex design. Therefore, a simplified concept with only a basic strain gauge was tested to examine this issue. The results showed that the kingpin experienced sufficient strains, indicating that a more advanced concept that provides more detailed and accurate results can now be implemented.

Die Präsentation stellt kurz die Grundlagen der Berechnung von Schraubenverbindungen in Anlehnung an die VDI-Richtlinie 2230 Teil 1 dar. Auch die vier FEM-Modellklassen, die die VDI 2230 Teil 2 (Entwurf) zur Berechnung von Mehrschraubenverbindungen vorschlägt, werden behandelt, und die in Creo Simulate vorhandenen Softwarefeatures zu deren Umsetzung vorgestellt. Es folgt eine Darstellung, was bei der Linearisierung von Schraubenverbindungen zur vereinfachten Berechnung zu beachten ist, und wieso bei der Berechnung im FEM-System dann nicht notwendigerweise eine Vorspannung benötigt wird. Ausführlich wird das neue Schraubenfeature in Creo Simulate betrachtet, das eine weitgehend automatisierte Modellierung und Berechnung von Standardverschraubungen erlaubt. Weitere Features, wie die neuen Vorspannelemente, werden erläutert, sowie auch die Grenzen der Software aufgezeigt. Abschließend werden zwei anspruchsvolle Anwendungsbeispiele vorgestellt: Eine zentrisch belastete Verschraubung mit Berücksichtigung von Elasto-Plastizität und einer komplexen Lasthistorie (Anziehen durch Anzugsmoment, Setzeffekte, Entfall des Torsionsmomentes durch das Anziehen, Betriebskraft) sowie eine exzentrisch belastete Verschraubung, die wegen eines relativ dünnen Flansches starke Biegezusatzbeanspruchungen erfährt. / The presentation shows the foundations of bolt analysis according to VDI-guideline 2230 part 1. In addition, the four FEM model classes proposed in VDI 2230 part 2 (draft) are described, as well as the features available in Creo Simulate to realize these model classes. Next, the presentation shows the requirements for linearizing bolted connections, and why in a FEM analysis with a linearized connection no preload is necessary. The new fastener feature introduced in Creo Simulate is explained in detail. This feature allows the automated modeling and analysis of bolted connections having standard geometry. Further software features, like pretension elements, as well as the current software limitations are shown. Finally, two advanced application examples are shown: A centrically loaded bolted connection taking into account elasto-plasticity and a complex load history (tightening torque, embedding, removal of tightening stress, operational load), and an eccentrically loaded flange connection, which is subjected to high additional bending loads because the flange is relatively thin.

Possibilities of modeling non-linear behavior of concrete within standard room temperatures and increased fire-load values using FEM software ANSYS are studied. Temperature dependences of material models are considered. Fire resistance of reinforced concrete and concrete-steel composite construction is analyzed. Fire loads are defined in accordance with relevant standards. Non-linear structural transient analyses are calculated after temperatures were determined by transient thermal analyses. Results obtained from analyses of simple reinforced concrete structure are compared with approach of isotherm 500 °C method.

Diploma thesis is fucused on strength calculation of the heat exchanger according to ČSN EN 13 445. Introductory part introduce problems with the design of heat exchangers. In other parts there are a strength calculation of the heat exchanger according to ČSN EN 13 445, the results of the analysis with their appreciation. Annexes included output logs from the program Sant 'Ambrogio, and drawings documentation.

The master thesis deals with thermal hydraulic design and strength design of a heat exchanger with “U” tube bundle inside of a shell. The first chapter introduces general design issues of the heat exchangers. The following chapter describes thermal hydraulic design created in software Maple 16.0 by using Kern’s method and the method of Bell-Delaware. HTRI software was used for the control of thermal hydraulic design correctness. To check critical locations of fluid flow in space between the tubes, the CFD model was created at ANSYS Fluent 14.0 software. Accuracy of strength design was verifying by Sant’ Ambrogio software in accordance with ČSN EN 13 445 standards. The last chapter concerns with FEM analysis. According to standards ČSN EN 13 445 the design by analysis namely method based on stress categories were used for the strength analysis of nozzle.

This thesis is focused on the thermal-hydraulic and construction design of heat exchanger with floating head. The introductory part is dedicated to the design of heat exchangers. Next part is focused on the thermal-hydraulic design created in HTRI software (module Xist. The next section is the strength calculation of selected components of the heat exchanger according to EN 13445 in software Sant'Ambrogio. The following part describes each of the analysis in software Ansys Workbench. The final part contains complete manufacturing documentation of heat exchanger.