This thesis focuses on research I have done on ytterbium-doped femtosecond fiber lasers. These lasers operate in the near infrared region, lasing at 1030 nm. This wavelength is particularly important in biomedical applications, which includes but is not limited to confocal microscopy and ablation for surgical incisions. Furthermore, fiber lasers are advantageous compared to solid state lasers in terms of their cost, form factor, and ease of use. Solid state lasers still dominate the market due to their comparatively high energy pulses. High energy pulse generation in fiber lasers is hindered by either optical wave breaking or by multipulsing. One of the main challenges for fiber lasers is to overcome these limitations to achieve high energy pulses. The motivation for the work done in this thesis is increasing the output pulse peak power and energy. The main idea of the work is that decreasing the nonlinearity that acts on the pulse inside the cavity will prevent optical wave breaking, and thus will generate higher energy pulses. By increasing the output energy, ytterbium-doped femtosecond fiber lasers can be competitive with solid state lasers which are used commonly in research. Although fiber lasers tend to lack the wavelength tuning ability of solid state lasers, many biomedical applications take advantage of the 1030 µm central wavelength of ytterbium-doped fiber lasers, so the major limiting factor of fiber lasers in this field is simply the output power. By increasing the output energy without resorting to external amplification, the cavity is optimized and cost can remain low and economical. During verification of the main idea, the cavity was examined for possible back-reflections and for components with narrow spectral bandwidths which may have contributed to the presence of multipulsing. Distinct cases of multipulsing, bound pulse and harmonic mode-locking, were observed and recorded as they may be of more interest in the future. The third-order dispersion contribution from the diffraction gratings inside the laser cavity was studied, as it was also considered to be an energy-limiting factor. No significant effect was found as a result of third-order dispersion; however, a region of operation was observed where two different pulse regimes were found at the same values of net cavity group velocity dispersion. Results verify the main idea and indicate that a long length of low-doped gain fiber is preferable to a shorter, more highly doped one. The low-doped fiber in an otherwise equivalent cavity allows the nonlinear phase shift to grow at a slower rate, which results in the pulse achieving a higher peak power before reaching the nonlinear phase shift threshold at which optical wave breaking occurs. For a range of net cavity group velocity dispersion values, the final result is that the low doped fiber generates pulses of approximately twice the value of energy of the highly-doped gain fiber. Two techniques of mode-locking cavities were investigated to achieve this result. The first cavity used NPE mode-locking which masked the results, and the second used a SESAM for mode-locking which gave clear results supporting the hypothesis.

This thesis focuses on research I have done on ytterbium-doped femtosecond fiber lasers. These lasers operate in the near infrared region, lasing at 1030 nm. This wavelength is particularly important in biomedical applications, which includes but is not limited to confocal microscopy and ablation for surgical incisions. Furthermore, fiber lasers are advantageous compared to solid state lasers in terms of their cost, form factor, and ease of use. Solid state lasers still dominate the market due to their comparatively high energy pulses. High energy pulse generation in fiber lasers is hindered by either optical wave breaking or by multipulsing. One of the main challenges for fiber lasers is to overcome these limitations to achieve high energy pulses. The motivation for the work done in this thesis is increasing the output pulse peak power and energy. The main idea of the work is that decreasing the nonlinearity that acts on the pulse inside the cavity will prevent optical wave breaking, and thus will generate higher energy pulses. By increasing the output energy, ytterbium-doped femtosecond fiber lasers can be competitive with solid state lasers which are used commonly in research. Although fiber lasers tend to lack the wavelength tuning ability of solid state lasers, many biomedical applications take advantage of the 1030 µm central wavelength of ytterbium-doped fiber lasers, so the major limiting factor of fiber lasers in this field is simply the output power. By increasing the output energy without resorting to external amplification, the cavity is optimized and cost can remain low and economical. During verification of the main idea, the cavity was examined for possible back-reflections and for components with narrow spectral bandwidths which may have contributed to the presence of multipulsing. Distinct cases of multipulsing, bound pulse and harmonic mode-locking, were observed and recorded as they may be of more interest in the future. The third-order dispersion contribution from the diffraction gratings inside the laser cavity was studied, as it was also considered to be an energy-limiting factor. No significant effect was found as a result of third-order dispersion; however, a region of operation was observed where two different pulse regimes were found at the same values of net cavity group velocity dispersion. Results verify the main idea and indicate that a long length of low-doped gain fiber is preferable to a shorter, more highly doped one. The low-doped fiber in an otherwise equivalent cavity allows the nonlinear phase shift to grow at a slower rate, which results in the pulse achieving a higher peak power before reaching the nonlinear phase shift threshold at which optical wave breaking occurs. For a range of net cavity group velocity dispersion values, the final result is that the low doped fiber generates pulses of approximately twice the value of energy of the highly-doped gain fiber. Two techniques of mode-locking cavities were investigated to achieve this result. The first cavity used NPE mode-locking which masked the results, and the second used a SESAM for mode-locking which gave clear results supporting the hypothesis.

This thesis focuses on research I have done on ytterbium-doped femtosecond fiber lasers. These lasers operate in the near infrared region, lasing at 1030 nm. This wavelength is particularly important in biomedical applications, which includes but is not limited to confocal microscopy and ablation for surgical incisions. Furthermore, fiber lasers are advantageous compared to solid state lasers in terms of their cost, form factor, and ease of use. Solid state lasers still dominate the market due to their comparatively high energy pulses. High energy pulse generation in fiber lasers is hindered by either optical wave breaking or by multipulsing. One of the main challenges for fiber lasers is to overcome these limitations to achieve high energy pulses. The motivation for the work done in this thesis is increasing the output pulse peak power and energy. The main idea of the work is that decreasing the nonlinearity that acts on the pulse inside the cavity will prevent optical wave breaking, and thus will generate higher energy pulses. By increasing the output energy, ytterbium-doped femtosecond fiber lasers can be competitive with solid state lasers which are used commonly in research. Although fiber lasers tend to lack the wavelength tuning ability of solid state lasers, many biomedical applications take advantage of the 1030 µm central wavelength of ytterbium-doped fiber lasers, so the major limiting factor of fiber lasers in this field is simply the output power. By increasing the output energy without resorting to external amplification, the cavity is optimized and cost can remain low and economical. During verification of the main idea, the cavity was examined for possible back-reflections and for components with narrow spectral bandwidths which may have contributed to the presence of multipulsing. Distinct cases of multipulsing, bound pulse and harmonic mode-locking, were observed and recorded as they may be of more interest in the future. The third-order dispersion contribution from the diffraction gratings inside the laser cavity was studied, as it was also considered to be an energy-limiting factor. No significant effect was found as a result of third-order dispersion; however, a region of operation was observed where two different pulse regimes were found at the same values of net cavity group velocity dispersion. Results verify the main idea and indicate that a long length of low-doped gain fiber is preferable to a shorter, more highly doped one. The low-doped fiber in an otherwise equivalent cavity allows the nonlinear phase shift to grow at a slower rate, which results in the pulse achieving a higher peak power before reaching the nonlinear phase shift threshold at which optical wave breaking occurs. For a range of net cavity group velocity dispersion values, the final result is that the low doped fiber generates pulses of approximately twice the value of energy of the highly-doped gain fiber. Two techniques of mode-locking cavities were investigated to achieve this result. The first cavity used NPE mode-locking which masked the results, and the second used a SESAM for mode-locking which gave clear results supporting the hypothesis.

Rapid progress in ultra-intense laser technology has resulted in intensity levels surpassing 1022 W/cm2, reaching the highest possible density of electromagnetic energy amongst all controlled sources available in the laboratory. During recent decades, fast growth in available intensity has stimulated numerous studies based on the use of high intensity lasers as a unique tool for the initiation of nonlinear behavior in various basic systems: first molecules and atoms, then plasma resulting from the ionization of gases and solids, and, finally, pure vacuum. Apart from their fundamental importance, these studies reveal various mechanisms for the conversion of a laser pulse's energy into other forms, opening up new possibilities for generating beams of energetic particles and radiation with tailored properties. In particular, the cheapness and compactness of laser based sources of energetic protons are expected to make a revolution in medicine and industry.   In this thesis we study nonlinear phenomena in the process of laser radiation interacting with plasmas of ionized targets. We develop advanced numerical tools and use them for the simulation of laser-plasma interactions in various configurations relating to both current and proposed experiments. Phenomenological analysis of numerical results helps us to reveal several new effects, understand the physics behind them and develop related theoretical models capable of making general conclusions and predictions. We develop target designs to use studied effects for charged particle acceleration and for the generation of attosecond pulses of unprecedented intensity. Finally, we analyze prospects for experimental activity at the upcoming international high intensity laser facilities and uncover a basic effect of anomalous radiative trapping, which opens up new possibilities for fundamental science.

Controlling the quantum states of charge (excitons) or spin-polarized carriers in semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) has been the focus of a considerable research effort in recent years due to the strong promise of using this approach to develop solid state quantum computing hardware. The long-term scalability of this type of quantum computing architecture is enhanced by the use of QDs emitting in the telecom band, which would exploit the established photonic infrastructure. This thesis reports the use of all optical infrared experimental techniques to control exciton dynamics in two different QD samples consisting of InAs/GaAs QDs and InAs/InP QDs within a planar microcavity. An infrared quantum control apparatus was developed and used to apply optimized shaping masks to ultrafast pulses from an optical parametric oscillator. Pulse shaping protocols designed to execute a two-qubit controlled-rotation operation on an individual semiconductor QD were demonstrated and characterized. The quantum control apparatus was then implemented in simultaneous single qubit rotations using two uncoupled, distant InAs/GaAs QDs. These optimal control experiments demonstrated high fidelity optical manipulation of exciton states in the two QDs using a single broadband laser pulse, representing a step forward on the path to a scalable QD architecture and showcasing the power of pulse shaping techniques for quantum control on solid state qubits. As an alternative to single QDs, which have very low optical signals, subsets of QDs within an ensemble can be used in quantum computing applications. To investigate the mediation of inhomogeneities in a QD ensemble, pump-probe experiments were performed on InAs/InP QDs within a dielectric Bragg stack microcavity. Two different excitation geometries showed that the angle dependence of the microcavity transmission allowed for the spectral selection of QD subsets with transition energies resonant with the cavity mode. The microcavity mitigated inhomogeneities in the ensemble while providing a basis for addressing QD subsets which could be used as distinguishable quantum bits. This thesis work shows significant advances towards an optical computing architecture using quantum states in semiconductor QDs.

We use photon-counting to measure nonlinear Thomson scattering from low-density electrons in an intense laser focus. The azimuthal and longitudinal polarization components of the second harmonic are measured across much of the full emission sphere. The data show, for the first time experimentally, emission structure in the ‘Northern’ and ‘Southern’ hemispheres, where the ‘North Pole’ aligns with the direction of laser propagation. To obtain these measurements, we installed an additional power amplifier on our Ti:sapphire laser system at BYU. The upgrade delivers ten times more energy to the laser focus than we had previously. This increase comes partly from the additional amplifier and partly from increased grating efficiency in our pulse compressor. We achieve an on-target pulse energy of 200 mJ at 35 fs. The focal spot size has radius w0 = 4 μm. This corresponds to an available peak intensity of over 1019 W/cm2, an order of magnitude above the onset of strong relativistic effects. The interaction region in the laser focus has a length of approximately 100 μm. Photons scattered from this region are collected using a 5-cm-focal-length lens and then focused onto the end of a 100-μm-diameter fiber by a second identical lens. The imaging system requires precise alignment with the laser focus, which must be maintained when rotating the photon-collection system along the longitudinal direction of the emission sphere. We developed an alignment procedure that ensures that the detector rotation axis aligns with region of space that is imaged onto the fiber. This region is then aligned to the laser focal spot.

Neste trabalho investigamos a dinâmica de formação de nanopartículas de Au por pulsos de femtossegundos formatados (800 nm, 30 fs, 1 kHz e 2 mJ), induzida pela ionização da molécula de quitosana. Inicialmente desenvolvemos um sistema de formatação de pulsos ultracurtos que faz uso de um modulador espacial de luz, constituído por um arranjo linear de cristais líquidos, com o qual somos capazes de impor distintas modulações de fase ao pulso laser. Para monitorar o processo de produção de nanopartículas, montamos um sistema de excitação (pulsos de femtossegundos) e prova (luz branca), o qual permite a observação em tempo real do aparecimento da banda de plásmon e, consequentemente, da dinâmica de formação das nanopartículas. Resultados obtidos para pulsos não formatados (limitados por Transformada de Fourier) demonstraram que a formação de nanopartículas deve-se à ionização não linear da quitosana, a qual está relacionada à oxidação do grupo hidroxila para o grupo carbonila. Medidas de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão forneceram os tamanhos (entre 20 e 100 nm) e formatos (esferas, pirâmides, hexágonos, bastões, etc) das nanopartículas geradas. Ainda, nossos resultados revelaram que esta ionização é iniciada por absorção multifotônica, mais especificamente por absorção de 4 fótons. Utilizando pulsos formatados com fase espectrais constante, degrau e cossenoidal com diferentes frequências, investigamos a influência destes na formação de nanopartículas. Concluímos que os pulsos mais longos são mais favoráveis ao processo de ionização, e consequente redução dos íons de Au para a formação de nanopartículas metálicas. Este comportamento se deve, provavelmente, à redistribuição da energia absorvida para os modos vibracionais, o que é mais provável para pulsos mais longos. Assim, o método apresentado pode abrir novas maneiras para a formação de nanopartículas de metálicas, as quais podem ser mais exploradas dos pontos de vista aplicado e fundamental. / In this work we have studied the synthesis of Au nanoparticles using shaped ultrashort pulses (800 nm, 30 fs, 1 kHz and 2 mJ), induced by the ionization of the chitosan. Initially we developed a pulse shaping setup that uses a spatial light modulator (liquid crystals array), with which we are able to impose distinct phase mask to the laser pulse. In order to monitor the nanoparticles production process, we used a pump-probe system, consisting of femtosecond pulses (pump) and white light (probe), which allows the observation of the plasmon band enhancement and hence the nanoparticles formation dynamics. The results obtained by Fourier Transform limited pulses have shown that the nanoparticles formation is due to the nonlinear ionization of chitosan, which is related to hydroxyl group oxidation to the carbonyl group. Transmission electron microscopy measurements provided the sizes (20-100 nm) and shapes (spheres, pyramids, hexagons, rods, etc.) of the produced nanoparticles. Moreover, our results revealed that ionization is initiated by multiphoton absorption, more specifically by four photons absorption. Using pulses shaped with constant, step and cossenoidal (with different frequencies) spectral phase masks, we investigated their influence in the nanoparticles formation. We conclude that longer pulses are more favorable to the ionization process and, consequently, to the gold ions reduction for the synthesis of the metallic nanoparticles. This behavior is probably due to the redistribution of the absorbed energy to the vibrational modes, which is more likely for longer pulses. Therefore, the approach presented here can open new ways to produce metallic nanoparticles, which can be further explored from applied and fundamental points of view.

Neste trabalho investigamos a dinâmica de formação de nanopartículas de Au por pulsos de femtossegundos formatados (800 nm, 30 fs, 1 kHz e 2 mJ), induzida pela ionização da molécula de quitosana. Inicialmente desenvolvemos um sistema de formatação de pulsos ultracurtos que faz uso de um modulador espacial de luz, constituído por um arranjo linear de cristais líquidos, com o qual somos capazes de impor distintas modulações de fase ao pulso laser. Para monitorar o processo de produção de nanopartículas, montamos um sistema de excitação (pulsos de femtossegundos) e prova (luz branca), o qual permite a observação em tempo real do aparecimento da banda de plásmon e, consequentemente, da dinâmica de formação das nanopartículas. Resultados obtidos para pulsos não formatados (limitados por Transformada de Fourier) demonstraram que a formação de nanopartículas deve-se à ionização não linear da quitosana, a qual está relacionada à oxidação do grupo hidroxila para o grupo carbonila. Medidas de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão forneceram os tamanhos (entre 20 e 100 nm) e formatos (esferas, pirâmides, hexágonos, bastões, etc) das nanopartículas geradas. Ainda, nossos resultados revelaram que esta ionização é iniciada por absorção multifotônica, mais especificamente por absorção de 4 fótons. Utilizando pulsos formatados com fase espectrais constante, degrau e cossenoidal com diferentes frequências, investigamos a influência destes na formação de nanopartículas. Concluímos que os pulsos mais longos são mais favoráveis ao processo de ionização, e consequente redução dos íons de Au para a formação de nanopartículas metálicas. Este comportamento se deve, provavelmente, à redistribuição da energia absorvida para os modos vibracionais, o que é mais provável para pulsos mais longos. Assim, o método apresentado pode abrir novas maneiras para a formação de nanopartículas de metálicas, as quais podem ser mais exploradas dos pontos de vista aplicado e fundamental. / In this work we have studied the synthesis of Au nanoparticles using shaped ultrashort pulses (800 nm, 30 fs, 1 kHz and 2 mJ), induced by the ionization of the chitosan. Initially we developed a pulse shaping setup that uses a spatial light modulator (liquid crystals array), with which we are able to impose distinct phase mask to the laser pulse. In order to monitor the nanoparticles production process, we used a pump-probe system, consisting of femtosecond pulses (pump) and white light (probe), which allows the observation of the plasmon band enhancement and hence the nanoparticles formation dynamics. The results obtained by Fourier Transform limited pulses have shown that the nanoparticles formation is due to the nonlinear ionization of chitosan, which is related to hydroxyl group oxidation to the carbonyl group. Transmission electron microscopy measurements provided the sizes (20-100 nm) and shapes (spheres, pyramids, hexagons, rods, etc.) of the produced nanoparticles. Moreover, our results revealed that ionization is initiated by multiphoton absorption, more specifically by four photons absorption. Using pulses shaped with constant, step and cossenoidal (with different frequencies) spectral phase masks, we investigated their influence in the nanoparticles formation. We conclude that longer pulses are more favorable to the ionization process and, consequently, to the gold ions reduction for the synthesis of the metallic nanoparticles. This behavior is probably due to the redistribution of the absorbed energy to the vibrational modes, which is more likely for longer pulses. Therefore, the approach presented here can open new ways to produce metallic nanoparticles, which can be further explored from applied and fundamental points of view.

Avec l'apparition de nouveaux systèmes laser ultra-courts, des intensités laser extrêmement élevées sont devenues accessibles, permettant ainsi un traitement au laser de pratiquement tous les matériaux. En conséquence, les techniques de traitement extrêmement précises sont en cours de développement étendant considérablement le nombre des applications industrielles et médicales correspondantes. Des progrès dans ce domaine nécessitent une meilleure compréhension des processus fondamentaux impliqués dans les interactions laser. De plus le succès à l’international du développement et de l’utilisation de systèmes laser de forte puissance, dépend de la capacité de la définition minutieuse du seuil d’endommagement de leurs composants optiques. Ces points illustrent l'importance d'une modélisation numérique détaillée des interactions de laser avec des matériaux diélectriques. Sous irradiation laser, des électrons germes apparaissent dans la bande de conduction des matériaux diélectriques en raison de processus de photo-ionisation. En collision avec un troisième corps, ces électrons sont encore chauffés dans le domaine du laser. Lorsque l'énergie des électrons de seuil est atteinte, l'ionisation par impact d'électrons commence. Dans le même temps, les impulsions laser considérées sont si courtes que le sous-système électronique n'a pas le temps d'atteindre un état d'équilibre. Les propriétés optiques résultant sont affectées et la définition du critère de dommages devrait être révisée. Cela représente l'approche proposée pour le non-équilibre et fournit une description détaillée de tous les processus impliqués. En particulier, on considère le processus et l’impact de photo- ionisation, ainsi que électron-électron, électron-phonon et les collisions électron-ion. La distribution d'énergie des électrons et le chauffage de sous-systèmes électroniques et phonons est discutée. Le rôle des paramètres du laser (longueur d'onde, durée d'impulsion, fluence) et les propriétés des matériaux (de l'écart de l'énergie, de la structure de bande) sont étudiées. Le temps de thermalisation est calculé et caractérise l'état de non-équilibre en fonction de la durée d'impulsion du laser. Un nouveau critère thermique est proposé pour la définition des dommages sur la base des énergies d'électrons et phonons. Les seuils d’endommagement calculés sont comparés aux résultats expérimentaux récents. Une analyse d'autres critères (claquage optique classique et thermique) est également effectuée / With the appearance of new ultra-short laser systems, extremely high laser intensities became accessible thus allowing laser treatment of practically all materials. As a result, extremely precise processing techniques are under development considerably extending the number of the corresponding industrial and medical applications. Further progress in this field requires a better understanding of fundamental processes involved in the laser interactions. In addition, the success of several national and international involving the development and use of high power laser systems depends on the capacity of careful definition of damage threshold of their optical components. These points illustrate the importance of a detailed numerical modeling of laser interactions with dielectric materials. Under laser irradiation, seed electrons appear in the conduction band of dielectric materials due to photo-ionization process. Colliding with a third-body, these electrons are further heated in laser field. When the threshold electron energy is reached, electron-impact ionization begins. At the same time, the considered laser pulses are so short that electron sub-system has no time to reach an equilibrium state. The resulting optical properties are affected and the definition of the damage criterion should be revised. The proposed approach accounts for the non-equilibrium and provides a detailed description of all the involved processes. In particular, we consider the photo- and impact-ionization processes, as well as electron-electron, electron-phonon and electron-ion collisions. The electron energy distribution and heating of electronic and phonon subsystems is discussed. The role of laser parameters (wavelength, pulse duration, fluence) and material properties (energy gap, band structure) is investigated. The thermalization time is calculated and characterizes the non-equilibrium state as a function of laser pulse duration. A novel thermal criterion is proposed for damage definition based on the electron and phonon energies. The calculated damage thresholds are compared with recent experimental findings. An analysis of other criteria (classical optical breakdown and thermal) is also performed

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