Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are one of the forensic markers used to resolve the problem of DNA typing from degraded samples. It has been found in previous studies that when profiling heavily degraded forensic samples the small amplicon required for SNP analysis has an advantage over the larger STR loci, which are routinely used in forensic case work. A total of 66 SNPs from the non-coding region of the 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes were identified and SNP assays developed. Instead of selecting the SNPs from the available GenBank® sites, SNPs were typed from Arab individuals from Kuwait and United Arab Emirates (UAE) to identify polymorphic SNPs. In order to obtain SNP data from Arab populations, a total of 10 unrelated Arab individuals from Kuwait and UAE were typed. The Affymetrix GeneChip® Mapping 250 K Array Sty І was employed to generate profiles for approximately 238,000 SNPs. Only autosomal SNPs were selected from the data. Following selection, allele frequencies were estimated using the SNaPshot™ technique (Applied Biosystems) with 25 UAE individuals. For this technique, PCR forward and reverse primers were designed to generate PCR products less than 150 bp. The single base extension primers were designed to hybridise 1 bp upstream from the target SNP. SNP characterization, including Hardy¬Weinberg equilibrium and pair wise linkage disequilibrium, was carried out using the software package Arlequin v 3.1. Allele frequencies were calculated using Excel spreadsheets. PowerStats v.12 software used for discrimination power and match probability estimation. All the 66 SNPs were polymorphic with average heterozygosity levels of 47%. A high heterozygosity level is very valuable for forensic application improving the individualization of forensic samples (Vallone et al. 2005). The probability that two individuals having identical genotype profile was found to be very low, 3.058 x 10-25. The combined power of discrimination was found to be 0.999999999. This indicated that the selected SNPs met the parameters needed for forensic application. The SNPs genotype sensitivity gave profiles from minute amounts of DNA template as little as 100 pico grams (pg) and optimal and reproducible results at 300 pg of DNA template. The profiling of DNA from forensic samples is not always possible. This can be due to insufficient amount of samples being recovered and in many cases, DNA degradation. Biological materials that are recovered from the scene of the crime have often been exposed to sub-optimal environmental conditions such as high temperature and humidity. SNPs performance on degraded samples was tested on artificially degraded saliva and semen samples. Controlled temperature and humidity experiments were performed to study the effect of these environmental factors on the samples. Also uncontrolled experiments on samples being subjected to different weather conditions (UK summer and UAE winter and summer) was performed in order to study and compare both weather effects on saliva samples. The triplex sets of SNPs that were developed for such study showed full allele profiles when compared to STRs, the current method used in forensic labs. In addition, SNPs produced a higher success rate than STRs when tested with samples obtained from human teeth remains and on samples subjected to DNase 1 digestion. The small size of SNPs, between 90 and 147 base pair (bp), showed more resistance to degradation than the STRs size ranging between 100 and 360 bp. This study demonstrated that the 66 SNPs selected are useful markers when the typing of degraded samples by STRs fails to produce complete or partial profiles.

Cut mark analysis to date has been intermittently and superficially researched across a range of disciplines, despite its potential to significantly contribute to criminal investigation. The current study aims to elucidate cut mark analysis by proposing a novel classification system for the identification of knife cuts (kerfs) in bone. The system was devised, to record accurate and reliable information about cut marks and the criteria were tested for association with the knives that created them. Optical Microscopy was used to examine knife cuts on fleshed porcine bone. Incised cuts were made by a range of serrated, scalloped and fine-edged blades (n=9), by the author, and participants (n=23) were recruited to make marks on bone under the same force-measured conditions, using the Kistler force plate and a bespoke frame to control the level of height to which the knife can be raised above the bone prior to impact. Resultant kerfs were created by a single operator (n=86) and created by a range of individuals (n=186). The data suggests that consistent force was not achieved and the resultant marks on the bones made by the same knife had wide variation in their appearance and depth. The classification criteria tested did not provide discrete identification of knife blades from the assessment of kerf features; however, trends were identified from criteria including margin regularity, margin definition, floor width and wall gradient, which may form the basis for further investigation. Marks made by a single operator showed more significant associations (p<0.05) than group operators, and although kerfs from each share some trends, several significant relationships observed in marks made by a single operator are not shared by the participant group. Limitations of using optical microscopy included the inability to view all aspects of each mark, particularly when combined with variation in depth and angle produced by human operators. From the present results, it is suggested that the use of digital microscopy with a superior ability to build three dimensional images of indented marks would provide the necessary step forward to improve discrimination between knife classifications, based on the areas highlighted by the current research. This reinforces the need for further understanding of the mechanics of cut mark application in human individuals and their potential effects on kerf features.

Three different derivatisation procedures were evaluated for their general applicability to systematic toxicological analysis (STA) involving (a) acylation with pentafluoropropionyl anhydride (PFPA) and pentafluoropropanol (PFP-OH), (b) acylation/esterification (methylation) with pentafluoropropionyl anhydride (PFPA) and a novel methylating agent trimethylsilyldiazomethane (TMS-diazomethane), used as a chromatographic derivatisation reagent for the first time in this study, and (c) silylation with tertiary-butyldimethylsilyl-trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA). Model compounds were selected for the evaluation process including a primary amine (amphetamine), a secondary amine (methamphetamine), alicyclic and aromatic hydroxy compounds (morphine, tetrahydrocannabinol), and carboxylic acids (benzoylecgonine, 11-nor tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid). For method (a) derivatisation was successful for all of the test compounds and mass spectra were obtained for each of them. For method (b), the novel methylating agent trimethylsilyl-diazomethane was used to convert carboxylic acids into the corresponding methyl esters. This reaction was found to proceed rapidly and quantitatively at room temperature and holds potential for future use in toxicology to replace diazomethane, a hazardous and toxic material. Method (c) gave derivatives with all test compounds except the secondary amine, methamphetamine, and the alcohol, morphine. The gas chromatographic behaviour of these derivatives was good and the mass spectra had prominent ions suitable for GC-MS-SIM. The extraction of multiple drugs from blood was evaluated using the novel polymeric SPE sorbent Strata-X. The same test compounds were used to assess the extraction step in terms of recovery and variation (within day and between days). The extracts were analysed by GC-MS-SIM using each of the three types of derivative. Recoveries of the test compounds were in the range of 50-100 percent depending on the analyte and its concentration in blood. All calibration curves were linear and had correlation coefficients higher than 0.99. Within day variations and between day variations were in the range of 2-22% relative standard deviation. Limits of detection and quantitation were measured for the model compounds and were found to be in the ranges of 0.4-7.3 ng/ml and 1.1-24.4 ng/ml respectively. The full method, combining extraction with each of the derivatisation reactions was finally evaluated for the presence of interferences with real case blood samples. The three derivatisation procedures were evaluated using four test compounds comprising diazepam plus its three metabolites nordiazepam, temazepam and oxazepam. The hydroxylated metabolites (temazepam and oxazepam) formed derivatives readily with all three reagent mixtures but nordiazepam (secondary aromatic amine) did not react except with MTBSTFA. Based on the work of this study it is concluded that a method is possible for STA based on a polymeric sorbent, to give a general extract, followed by a generalised derivatisation procedure such as acylation, with PFPA/PFP-OH prior to GC-MS.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) binds a wide range of structurally diverse compounds such as halogenated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and biphenyls which are abundant in the environment. Activation of AhR leads to the regulation of a battery of xenobiotic enzymes including cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1). The purely chlorinated compounds feature in the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) evaluation of dioxin-like compounds derived from a meta-analysis of previous potency data (toxic equivalency factors; TEFs), which is used to calculate the total toxic equivalence (TEQ). The first aim of this work was to fully characterise the three most environmentally abundant mono-ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs; PCB 105, 118 and 156) including a re-evaluation of their putative antagonistic effects on AhR. Secondly, the effects of mixed halogenated compounds, currently not included in the TEQ estimation, were investigated as AhR agonists based on their environmental exposure and potency. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to measure the AhR mediated induction of CYP1A1 mRNA in rat H4IIE and human MCF-7 cells. The three mono-ortho-substituted PCBs were shown to be antagonists of rat and human AhRs, an effect which is not currently included in the TEQ calculation. 2-bromo-3,7,8-trichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2-B-3,7,8-TriCDD) was found to be an AhR agonist that was 2-fold more potent than 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD; considered one of the most potent in the environment). The majority of the other tested compounds were found to be within 10-fold less potent than TCDD and could therefore have a significant impact on the TEQ. A family of putative AhR agonists from AstraZencea were investigated and one of the compounds was shown to be a highly potent AhR agonist, 5-fold more potent than TCDD at inducing CYP1A1. The results indicate approximately a 15-fold higher sensitivity of the rat cell line to the AhR agonists compared with the human cell line. It is not currently understood what confers these differences whether it is a difference in the mechanism of activation or purely as a result of differences in the AhR sequence. The mechanism of action is thought to be the same in both species and the associated proteins are both comparable. The amino acid sequences of the AhR, in both human and rat are quite similar but may play a significant role in the differences observed between species. Therefore in order to directly compare the rat and human AhRs, two novel cell line models were created using an inducible expression system to infect an AhR-deficient mouse cell line with a replication-defective virus containing either the rat or human AhR. The AhRs were activated with various compounds to induce mouse CYP1A1. The CYP1A1 mRNA was measured using qRT-PCR but showed that the two AhR genes were not expressed enough to produce a response detectable above the background CYP1A1 induction by the low levels of mouse AhR. This research has shown that these dioxin-like compounds can have very different potencies at AhRs in different species so it is not always possible to predict the potency in humans from in vitro or rat in vivo toxicity data. Furthermore, it has identified compounds, such as 5F-203, which are significantly more potent in human compared to rat. This thesis provides information on the AhR species differences between human and rat that can be applied to risk assessment.

Division of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, University of the Witwatersrand Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Medicine In the Health Science Faculty University of Witwatersrand Johannesburg 2014 / Within the field of paediatric pathology dominant universal trends have emerged with child abuse related fatalities and child murders being at the forefront. However, several authors have noted that such trends have not been documented within the South African context. This is due to the lack of data collection and research within South Africa. Patterns of injury and prevalence of paediatric fatalities received at the Johannesburg Forensic Pathology Service (JHB FPS) over three years were observed through a descriptive, retrospective study. Data were collected from FPS case files and Police reports (SAPS180) accompanying the body to the mortuary. The results indicated that the majority of paediatric deaths were due to blunt force injuries, natural disease processes and drowning. Subdural and subarachnoid haematomas, multiple blunt force internal injuries, hyperinflation and consolidation of the lungs and features of dehydration were the dominant patterns of injuries and disease. Additionally, results exhibited a significant difference in age range when correlated to category of death as well as a high risk of mortality within the first year of life. This study highlights the alarming figures of accidental and socio-economic paediatric death cases which are received at the JHB FPS. Keywords: Child mortality, Injury patterns, Forensic Pathology

Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa que buscou compreender a vivência dos trabalhadores no universo do Instituto Médico Legal (IML) de Londrina Pr. Teve por objetivos analisar as experiências dos funcionários no IML com morte, identificar os desafios advindos e as percepções sobre a humanização no cotidiano do processo de trabalho em seu ambiente profissional. O referencial teórico adotado foi a Bioética Personalista. Para a coleta de dados optou-se por utilizar a entrevista semiestruturada. A saturação das entrevistas foi atingida com a participação de 12 profissionais do Instituto Médico Legal, incluindo representantes de todos os segmentos funcionais. As entrevistas foram realizadas de abril de 2008 a março de 2009. Para a construção das categorias empíricas foi utilizada a análise de conteúdo proposta por Bardin. Esta análise seguindo um ordenamento conceitual conduziu à definição de três categorias temáticas: (1) o objeto do trabalho no Instituto Médico Legal; (2) a experiência do trabalhador do Instituto Médico Legal com morte e; (3) o cotidiano no processo de trabalho no Instituto Médico Legal. As três categorias versam sobre o processo de trabalho dos funcionários do Instituto Médico Legal de Londrina, cujas atividades laborativas são interdisciplinares. Nela estão incluídas as características do trabalho pericial em cadáveres, a representação do cadáver enquanto objeto de trabalho e os sentimentos vividos pelos funcionários em atuação. O cadáver enquanto objeto de trabalho foi percebido como uma pessoa num corpo calado, resultado de escolhas de vida e como membro de uma família. A família do cadáver também foi percebida como um objeto de trabalho, na perspectiva do atendimento e acolhimento que esta necessita neste momento de morte abrupta, em suas diferentes formas de reação. A segunda categoria versa sobre as percepções do fato da morte em si; seus significados agrupados nas dimensões biológica, religiosa e filosófica e; os sentimentos vivenciados frente ao final da vida. A terceira categoria abrange as características do processo de trabalho pericial e os sentimentos frente a esta prática. Emergem nas características do processo pericial os aspectos legais, o desconhecimento social, a repercussão pública, a ignorância do resultado final, as situações inesperadas e inusitadas, o trabalho em equipe e a carga laborativa. Entre os sentimentos surgem a tristeza, a compaixão, a dor, o medo, a surpresa, a exaustão, a impotência, a realização profissional e o resgate como ser humano. Nesse trabalho insurgiram desafios enquanto pessoas e enquanto profissionais técnicos, no atendimento pericial tanto às vítimas como aos familiares, no momento de morte. Resultados deste estudo evidenciam que os funcionários do IML são impelidos ao resgate de suas crenças e valores enquanto pessoas, desde o momento em que, conceituam morte, recordam-se de suas vivências, trabalham em equipe, relacionam-se com o cadáver e com os familiares deste. / This is a qualitative research that aimed to understand the experience of workers in the universe of the Institute of Forensic Medicine in Londrina-PR. The three objectives were to analyze the experiences of these workers with death, identify the challenges sprung from this work and their perceptions about humanization in their daily work process at the work environment. The Personalistic Bioethics theoretical reference was used. Semi-structured interviews were chosen for data collection. The interviews saturation was reached by the participation of 12 Institute of Forensic Medicine workers, representing all functional sectors. The interviews were conducted from April 2008 to March 2009. The Bardin Content Analysis was used to build empirical categories. By following a conceptual ordering, this analysis led to three thematic categories: (1): the object of work at the Institute of Forensic Medicine; (2) the Institute of Forensic Medicine workers experience with death and; (3) the daily routine in the work process at the Institute of Forensic Medicine. These three categories approach the work process of the Institute of Forensic Medicine workers in Londrina, whose work activities are interdisciplinary. These activities include forensic procedures in corpses, the representation of the corpse as object of work and the feelings expressed by the workers in action. The corpse, as object of work, was acknowledged as a person in a quiet body, the result of choices made in life and as a member of a family. The corpse family was also acknowledged as object of work, regarding reception and acceptance that this family needs in this moment of abrupt death, considering their different reactions towards it. The second category approaches the perceptions about death as a fact; its meanings grouped in the biological, religious and philosophical dimensions; and the feelings experienced towards the end of life. The third category regards the characteristics of forensic work process and the feelings towards this activity. These characteristics include the legal aspects, the social unrecognition, the media repercussion, the ignorance about the final result, the unexpected and peculiar situations, the team work and the work load. Among the feelings there are sadness, compassion, pain, fear, surprise, exhaustion, impotence, professional accomplishment and the recalling as a human being. In this work there were challenges regarding people as human beings and as technical workers, while conducting forensic work in victims or receptioning family members, during the moment of death. The results of this study highlight that the Institute of Forensic Medicine workers are impelled to regain their beliefs and values as people, since they define death, remember their experiences, work as a team, relate to the corpse and to its family members.

A identificação humana é algo que vem sendo estudado desde o século XIV e a cada dia vem se aperfeiçoando mais. Desta forma este estudo tem como proposta um método de identificação auxiliar aos já existentes, obtido por meio das rugas palatinas, que são estruturas localizadas na mucosa do palato duro, envolvendo papila incisiva, rafe mediana e rugas palatinas. Este estudo objetivou criar uma metodologia mais simples no uso deste método de identificação, por meio do uso de imagens digitalizadas e programas específicos para tal fim. A amostra foi constituída por 100 modelos e os respectivos prontuários. Inicialmente foram delimitadas as rugas palatinas, a papila incisiva e a rafe mediana com lapiseira 0,1 mm de espessura e grafite tipo HB, nos modelos dos sujeitos da pesquisa. Participaram da pesquisa três avaliadores, para que o estudo fosse cego: o avaliador 1 foi responsável pela seleção dos modelos iniciais; o avaliador 2 fez as cópias em scanner (para criar banco de dados); e o avaliador 3 re-numerou os modelos para que fossem sobrepostos pelo avaliador 2 e na seqüência fosse analisada a coincidência de pontos, para a possível identificação. Os modelos foram digitalizados e analisados por meio do programa Photoshop 7.0.1. Os resultados, encontrados por meio de análise de concordância de pontos não coincidentes, permitiram um percentual de 100 % de acerto na identificação, sendo então possível a identificação de todos os indivíduos por meio da metodologia proposta. A amostra apresentou 85% de pessoas do fenótipo cor da pele branco, 10 % negro, 5 % amarelo, a faixa etária envolveu indivíduos entre 8 e 30 anos de idade. Os resultados encontrados suportam as seguintes conclusões: que é possível realizar a identificação humana por meio das rugas palatinas, desde que haja um banco de dados prévio; as imagens podem ser arquivadas em CD-ROM, portanto, diminuindo o espaço utilizado para armazenamento dos dados pessoais de cada indivíduo; é um método de identificação seguro, por permitir análise relacionando 5 critérios, o que excluiu as chances de erros, pois nenhum modelo foi coincidente em nenhum ponto com outro, que não com o próprio. / The identification human being is something that comes being studied since century XIV and to each day it comes if perfecting more. In such a way this study a method of identification auxiliary to already the existing ones has as proposal, gotten by means of palatal rugae, that are structures located in the mucosa of the hard palate, involving papila incisive, rafe medium and palatal rugae. Having as objective to create a simpler methodology in the use of this method of identification, through the use of digitalized images and specific programs for such end. The sample was constituted by 100 models and respective handbooks. Initially they had been delimited palatal rugae, papila incisive and rafe medium with pencil 0.1 mm of thickness and graphite type HB, in the models of the citizens of the research. Three appraisers had participated of the research, so that the study he was blind: appraiser 1 was responsible for the election of the initial models; appraiser 2 made the copies in scanner (to reate data base); e appraiser 3 re-numbered the models so that they were overlapped by appraiser 2 and in the sequence the coincidence of points was analyzed, for the possible identification. The models had been digitalized and analyzed by means of the program Photoshop 7.0.1. The results, found by means of analysis of agreement of not coincident points, had allowed to a percentage of 100% of rightness in the identification, being possible the identification of all the individuals by means of the methodology proposal. The sample presented 85% of people of color of the white skin, 10% black, 5% yellow, the aged band involved individuals between 8 and 30 years of age. The joined results support the following conclusions: that she is possible to carry through the identification human being by means of palatal rugae, since that has a previous data base; the images can be filed in CD-ROM, therefore, decreased the space used for storage of the personal datas of each individual; it is a safe method of identification, for allowing to analysis relating 5 criteria, what it excluded the possibilities of errors, therefore no model was coincident in no point with another one, that not with the proper one.

A reconstrução facial, também conhecida como aproximação facial, é conhecida e realizada há muito tempo por profissionais da medicina forense e de áreas antropológicas. No caso da medicina forense, por exemplo, ela pode ser bastante útil quando não existem indícios que viabilizem a identificação do individuo por meios considerados de maior precisão, como por exemplo, exame de DNA ou de arcos dentários. Outra aplicação possível é auxiliar aos investigadores na redução do número de sujeitos (soluções) possíveis em casos de indivíduos não identificados, viabilizando a aplicação de exames de maior precisão. Existem vários métodos utilizados para a reconstrução facial, que pesquisadores constantemente buscam melhorar e aperfeiçoar. Esses métodos podem ser classificados em reconstrução facial por meio de imagens 2D ou reconstrução facial por meio de objetos 3D. Dentre esses métodos, podemos encontrar a reconstrução facial que faz uso de ferramentas de computação gráfica em 3D que pode ser realizada tanto na forma manual, onde ferramentas de computação gráfica simulam ferramentas utilizadas no mundo real no processo de reconstrução facial, ou na forma automatizada, onde o usuário informa ao software alguns dados como sexo, idade e etnia e a máquina realiza todo o processo de reconstrução facial. A proposta desse trabalho foi de aplicar técnicas de modelagem e de inserção de medidas de tecidos moles em um modelo 3D de crânio, de forma a validar o uso da computação gráfica como ferramenta de auxilio ao reconhecimento facial em procedimentos de medicina forense. O modelo de crânio foi reconstruído a partir de imagens obtidas por exame de tomografia computadorizada de um crânio real. Foi realizado um estudo de caso de um cadáver exumado de uma pessoa que possuía o registro de imagem em vida e utilizados dados de medidas de tecidos moles da face de brasileiros. Os testes foram realizados manualmente utilizando ferramentas de computação gráfica em 3D, atualmente disponíveis e os resultados avaliados de forma quantitativa. Os testes quantitativos foram realizados de forma a comparar os relevos 3D das reconstruções de face com interpolação e sem interpolação de pontos craniométricos e para diferentes padrões de tecidos moles. / The facial reconstruction, also known as facial approximation, is performed for centuries by forensic medicine professionals and anthropological areas researchers. In the forensic medicine, for example, it is used when there is no evidence that allows the identification of the individual by considered accurate means, such as DNA testing or dental records. Thus, the purpose of facial reconstruction is to assist researchers in reducing the number of possible unidentified people, therewith allowing the use of accurate tests. There are several methods used for facial reconstruction and researchers are constantly seeking to refine and improve. Then, these methods can be classified as facial reconstruction using 2D images or 3D objects. Among these methods, we can find the facial reconstruction that uses 3D computer graphics tools. This method can be performed both in manual form, where computer graphics tools are used in simulating the real world tools in the facial reconstruction process, or the automated way, where the user input data such as gender, age and ethnicity and the machine performs the entire process of facial reconstruction. The work purpose is to apply modeling techniques and the inclusion of soft tissues measures in 3D skull model, to validate the computer graphics use as a tool to aid the facial recognition in forensic medicine procedures. The skull model was reconstructed from computed tomography. Thus, we performed a study case of an exhumed body, who had the image registration in life as well as soft tissue measures data of the Brazilians faces. The tests were performed using manually 3D computer graphics tools currently available and the results were evaluated both quantitatively. The quantitative tests were performed comparing the surfaces of 3D reconstructions with interpolated and no interpolated craniometric points and to different soft tissues patterns.

This thesis aims to provide a detailed understanding of treatment engagement amongst forensic populations. Following an introduction outlining the current theoretical thinking in the area, Chapter 2 presents a systematic literature review exploring reasons for completion/non-completion of treatment from an offender's perspective. Consensus regarding reasons for treatment completion/non-completion was found. Reasons provided supported the majority of factors outlined in the Multifactor Offender Readiness Model (MORM), a model of treatment readiness. Research in this area was limited; no papers exploring adolescents' perspectives were identified. Implications for practice are discussed and areas for future research highlighted. Furthering existing research, Chapter 3 presents a mixed methods research study exploring the reasons why young people, detained in a secure hospital setting choose to attend/not attend sessions. Using thematic analysis several themes were identified. Factors relating to the young person, treatment and the organisation were identified, supporting the MORM. Chapter 4 presents a critical review of the Corrections Victoria Treatment Readiness Questionnaire (CVTRQ), a measure of treatment readiness developed using the internal factors of the MORM. This chapter explores the overall development and psychometric properties of the CVTRQ, highlighting its strengths and limitations. An overall discussion of the work presented is provided in Chapter 5.

This thesis explores facial affect processing in violent offenders, with a specific focus on how patterns of impairment seen in Intimate Partner Violent (IPV) prisoners differ to those of other violent prisoners. Chapter one introduces IPV as a serious public health concern with inadequate treatment efficacy. It discusses the overlap between IPV and non-IPV violence and highlights the need for further research elucidating how the treatment needs of IPV prisoners differ to those of non-IPV prisoners. The role of facial affect processing is then discussed in relation to empathy and violent offending. Chapter two reviews the literature on facial affect processing in violent offenders. The review found deficits in violent offenders’ recognition of negative affect, with deficits in fear, anger and disgust most reliably reported, across indices of accuracy, sensitivity and response bias. Subtleties in processing patterns were observed between violent offenders and non-violent offenders, and between violent offenders and sexually-violent offenders. The review highlighted a dearth of research exploring facial affect processing in IPV prisoners. Chapter three presents a study investigating facial affect processing among IPV and non-IPV violent prisoners and nonoffending controls. It investigated the role of eye-scan paths as a mechanism underpinning recognition deficits in violent offenders and explored the influence of psychopathology on visual scanning behaviour. Groups did not differ in their recognition accuracy but they did differ in their eye-scan paths as a function of intensity and sex of the expression; with nonoffenders demonstrating different visual scanning behaviour relative to offender groups, who did not differ from each other. There was little evidence to suggest that eye-scan paths were influenced by psychopathological profiles of the groups. Chapter four presents a critique of the revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2, Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy & Sugarman, 1996), a widely used measure of IPV. The review highlights the objectivity of the measure as both a strength, in terms of its limiting denial, minimisation and cognitive distortions but also a limitation in its failure to take into consideration the context in which the behaviour occurred. The scales’ psychometric properties are also discussed. The thesis conclusions are presented in Chapter five, alongside recommendations for practice and research.