Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) is a common feature in North Sea oil and gas production offshore but, to date, has been reported from only one production site onshore in the United Kingdom. This site, Wytch Farm on the Dorset coast, revealed high activity concentrations of lead-210 in metallic form but little evidence of radium accumulation. NORM has now been discovered at two further onshore sites in the East Midlands region of the UK. The material has been characterised in terms of its mineralogy, bulk composition and disequilibrium in the natural uranium and thorium series decay chains. In contrast to Wytch Farm, scale and sludge samples from the East Midlands were found to contain elevated levels of radium and radioactive progeny associated with crystalline strontiobarite. The highest radium-226 and radium-228 activity concentrations found in scale samples were 132 and 60 Bq/g, with mean values of 86 and 40 Bq/g respectively, somewhat higher than the mean for the North Sea and well above national exemption levels for landfill disposal. The two East Midlands sites exhibited similar levels of radioactivity. Scanning electron microscope imaging shows the presence of tabular, idiomorphic and acicular strontiobarite crystals with elemental mapping confirming that barium and strontium are co-located throughout the scale. Bulk compositional data show a corresponding correlation between barium-strontium concentrations and radium activity. Scales and sludge were dated using the 226Ra/210Pb method giving mean ages of 2.2 and 3.7 years, respectively. The results demonstrate clearly that these NORM deposits, with significant radium activity, can form over a very short period of time. Although the production sites studied here are involved in conventional oil recovery, the findings have direct relevance should hydraulic fracturing or fracking for shale gas be pursued in the East Midlands oilfield. Highly saline flowback fluid containing above regulation levels of radium has already been observed as a result of exploratory fracking operations in the North West s Bowland Shale and now appears a likely outcome if similar operations are conducted in the East Midlands. Barite (barium sulphate) coprecipitation is a cost-effective method for removing radium from solution. For the first time, reagent quantities for radium recovery by barite coprecipitation have been optimised in saline solutions of ionic strength (IS) 0.3 and 3 M. The process is highly effective, removing a maximum of ~90% radium in a single optimised coprecipitation step, but requiring substantially more sulphate at 3 M than at 0.3 M ionic strength to reach this maximum. It has been shown that, if left, the radiobarite precipitate will continue to remove radium by post-precipitation (recrystallisation). A pattern of diminishing returns in radium recovery by post- precipitation at each IS was observed; the rate was faster in the first 24 hours then dropped significantly over 14 days. After 14 days >80% of the radium was recovered, slightly more radium being removed at IS = 0.3 M. Therefore, if >90% radium recovery is sought, further co- and post-precipitation steps could be undertaken to approach the UK s 0.01 Bq/dm3 radium aqueous waste discharge exemption limit. However, compliance with UK s aqueous waste regulations would require multiple coprecipitation steps to recover >99.9% radium, which may not be feasible in practice. The Bowland Shale has high shale gas prospectivity and may be subject to further fracking operations in the future. Should local groundwaters mix with flowback fluid, there is potential for drinking water supplies to become contaminated. Baseline monitoring of groundwater was conducted in the region, so that comparisons may be made following potential fracking operations. The determined mean baseline for radium-226 and uranium-238 were 15.5 and 11.1 mBq/dm3 respectively, both below their respective notifiable drinking water level in the UK. In the majority of the groundwaters, barite is supersaturated and geochemical modelling has shown that a considerable proportion of the aqueous radium could precipitate in the Ba1-xRaxSO4 solid solution. A further increase in dissolved radium, barium and sulphate as a result of fracking will greatly increase the likelihood of concentrating the radium in barite scales, commonly found in oil and gas production equipment. What this means in terms of the potential NORM inventory is that Ra-containing NORM could manifest itself as fluid or solid waste.

No description available.

In several areas around the world, clean water is a precious asset that at anytime, and mainly due to circumstances of weather and climate, can become scarce. Mainly in the dry and remote places, people suffer with lack of water. A solution for this suffering can be a water desalination system, which makes water potable and usable for industry. That solution inherently, brings the problem of power requirement, which is sometimes arduous to accomplish in such remote areas of difficult access and long distances to overcome to build the infrastructure required to operate an electric power plant. Texas and the USA also face this scenario for many regions, for which the government has been creating some programs and driving forward incentives, looking for solutions to support water desalination. Water desalination has future applications for municipalities water-consuming or for arid and remote regions, as well as for industries that rely on heavy water usage, such as natural gas drilling operations, for which millions of gallons are trucked overland to the site and also hauled away afterwards, when the waste water produced must be treated. This thesis created the concept of autonomy for water desalination plants replacing the actual power supply from fossil fuel to a renewable source from wind or sun, giving capacity to them to produce its own electricity to operate as an autonomous unit, as demonstrated in the business case done for the Brownsville water desalination facility.

No description available.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Since its arrival onto the U.S. energy scene in the early 2000s, shale gas has had a significant impact on the global energy market. The fact that the shale gas supply of a single country has had such a widespread influence on the global energy market hints at the power that this energy resource holds as a ‘game changer’. With the fifth largest estimated shale gas reserves in the world, South Africa now faces the challenge of developing its own shale gas resources in the Karoo Basin. Having lifted the moratorium on hydraulic fracturing in September 2012, the South African government has indicated its interest in pursuing the commercial extraction of the country’s estimated shale gas reserves. This comes in light of the country’s potential energy crisis, as well as an increased role for natural gas in the country’s energy mix. South Africa has no history of shale gas extraction and currently has no legislation or regulatory practices in place to deal specifically with shale gas and hydraulic fracturing. The South African government thus faces the challenge of drawing policy lessons from other experienced shale gas-producing nations, such as the U.S., to close these regulatory gaps and exploit its national shale gas resources in an environmentally and economically responsible way. Consequently, this thesis focuses on the regulation of the American shale gas industry by asking what policy lessons the South African government can draw from the United States of America on its regulation of shale gas extraction. Richard Rose’s lesson-drawing approach to policy learning was adopted as the theoretical framework for this study and can also be applied as an analytical tool to aid in data collection and data analysis. Furthermore, the framework was operationalised through the research methods used for this case study, which consisted of a review of literature on the U.S. regulation of shale gas extraction. This research produced a number of key findings in the form of policy lessons for South Africa. Four main policy lessons were drawn on the regulation of shale gas extraction: regulation of shale gas extraction must occur at all levels of government—national, provincial and local; policy research must be used to inform policymaking for the development of new legislation specific to shale gas and hydraulic fracturing, so as to avoid regulatory exemptions often linked to ad hoc policymaking on shale gas extraction; each level of government and their related regulatory agencies must have clearly defined regulatory roles relating to shale gas and hydraulic fracturing; and finally, there must be uniformity in terms of the regulatory focus of shale gas regulators at all levels of government. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sedert skaliegas vroeg in die jare sedert 2000 op die Amerikaanse energietoneel verskyn het, het dit ‘n beduidende impak op die globale energiemark gehad. Die feit dat die voorraad skaliegas van een land so ‘n wydverspreide invloed gehad het op die globale energiemark is ‘n aanduiding van die mag van hierdie energiebron as ‘n spel-wisselaar.Suid-Afrika het die vyfde-grootste skaliegasreserwes ter wêreld, en staan nou voor die uitdaging om sy eie skaliegasreserwes in die Karookom te ontwikkel. Nadat die moratorium op hidrobreking in September 2012 opgehef is, het die Suid-Afrikaanse regering aangedui dat hulle belangstel om die land se beraamde skaliegasreserwes kommersieel te ontgin. Dit het ontstaan in die lig van die potensiële energiekrisis wat Suid-Afrika in die gesig staar, asook die begeerte dat aardgas ‘n groter rol moet speel in die land se mengsel van energiebronne. Suid-Afrika het geen geskiedenis van skaliegasontginning nie en tans is daar geen wetgewing of regulerende praktyke in plek wat spesifiek te make het met skaliegas en hidrobreking nie. Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering staan dus voor die uitdaging om te leer uit die beleidsrigtings van ander ervare skaliegaslande soos die V.S.A. ten einde hierdie leemtes in regulering op te hef en sy nasionale skaliegasreserwes op ‘n omgewingsvriendelike en ekonomies-verantwoordelike manier te ontgin. Gevolglik fokus hierdie tesis op die regulering van die Amerikaanse skaliegas-industrie deur te vra watter beleidslesse die Suid-Afrikaanse regering kan leer by die Amerikaanse regering oor die regulering van hulle skaliegasontginning. Richard Rose se 'lesson-drawing'-benadering tot die leer van beleid is aanvaar as die teoretiese raamwerk vir hierdie studie en kan ook aangewend word as 'n analitiese instrument om te help met dataversameling en -analise. Die raamwerk is verder geoperasionaliseer deur die navorsingsmetodes wat gebruik is vir hierdie gevallestudie, wat bestaan het uit 'n oorsig van die literatuur oor die V.S.A. se regulering van skaliegasontginning. Hierdie navorsing het ‘n aantal sleutelbevindinge opgelewer in terme van beleidslesse vir Suid-Afrika. Die vier vernaamste beleidslesse oor die regulering van skaliegasontginning wat na vore gekom het, is die volgende: die regulering van skaliegas moet op alle vlakke van regering geskied – nasionaal, provinsiaal en op plaaslike vlak; navorsing oor beleid moet gebruik word om beleidsvorming in te lig sodat nuwe wetgewing ontwikkel kan word wat spesifiek gerig is op skaliegas en hidrobreking, ten einde uitsonderings op regulering te voorkom wat dikwels verbind word met ad hoc beleidsformulering; elke vlak van regering en sy verwante reguleringsagentskappe moet duidelik gedefinieerde reguleringsrolle hê ten opsigte van skaliegas en hidrobreking; en, ten slotte, daar moet eenvormigheid wees in die reguleringsfokus van skaliegasreguleerders op alle vlakke van regering. / National Research Foundation (DAAD-NRF)

As same as other countries in the world, China is also facing the problem of a severe shortage of energy. Specifically, the demand for natural gas is rising explosively after the energy consumption structure has changed from oil to gas. Due to various reasons and motivations, shale has been considered having great reserves and believed in alleviating the energy crisis. Nevertheless, the massive investment in developing shale has a disappointing interest with low-yielding production. Scholars have done many researches and experiments for investigating the causes and increasing the productivity of shale formation, in field and in laboratory respectively. Based on the statistics, more details, and further discussion, in this dissertation a probable method for more effectively producing was demonstrated. Although the hydro-fracturing technology has been conducted in field frequently, sometimes the decrease of permeability has been observed after the treatment. To figure out this phenomenon, the investigation started from the basic characterization of matrix. Believed in the most component in shale, quartz consisted of silica which could dissolve in fluid. Been assigned as variables, temperature, pH, and salinity have been implemented for explanation of dissolution. Temperature played a great role in the process. Combined with confining pressure, the reconsolidation happened inside samples. Through more experiments the mechanism of reconsolidation has been discovered that both confining pressure and temperature are necessary for gelling in fracture. Perspective on the whole formation, well logs were a super supplement to laboratory experiments. It serviced not only a further confirmation, but also pointed out the relationship between desorption capacity and different components. Samples from upper and lower formations have been used for going further. The exchange which exists between N2 and CH4 could be a great idea to exploit gas from reservoir. Feldspar supported space for adsorbed gas, and it was also easy to release. In contrast, the organic matter in which a network of pores developed has ability to trap the gas deeply because of the specific surface area. Quartz had positive effect on production because of containing the organic matter, while the influence of clay minerals on adsorption and desorption could be neglected. Based on the analysis of reconsolidation and desorption, an idea has been conceived using foam as fracturing fluid for increasing gas production. Compared to the pure fluid, foam has less water, which could prevent the reconsolidation. Nitrogen could be the gas to foam. The exchange between N2 and CH4 will increase the production of gas. In order to serve the condition that increases the time of exchange and makes negative effect on reconsolidation simultaneously, the foaming test with ABS and K12 has been evaluated first. For better stability of foam more experiment have been done. Three formulas were recommended which could keep the balance between the increasing viscosity and decreasing volume. The work interpreted in this thesis has enhanced our understanding of microscopic properties of shale and was expected to make contribution to further research of fracturing and production design.

The case of mobilization against hydraulic fracturing by interest groups provided an opportunity to examine the influence of three factors (mission, audience, and policy context) on diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational framing. A comparative analysis was conducted of the mobilization activities of five national environmental organizations with a local presence in the Pennsylvania and New York Marcellus Shale regions. The organizations varied with respect to organizational mission, the audiences they were targeting (urban and rural), and the policy context in which they worked (pro and anti-hydraulic fracturing). Data came from eleven semi-structured in-depth interviews with organization personnel, and from the organizations' websites and published documents. The results of this research show how the organizations use diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational framing to mobilize citizens against hydraulic fracturing. They illustrate the influence of organizational mission, audience (urban versus rural), and policy context in how the groups take on these framing tasks. Overall, the findings provide insights into the variation in frames and framing that can occur at the organizational level inside a movement. They illustrate the explanatory value of investigating multiple factors as they affect diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational framing.

Abstract Josh Fox's film Gasland, released in 2010, started the national debate concerning the process of hydraulic fracturing and launched the term "fracking" into the public consciousness. Gasland, nominated for four Emmy Awards, was the winner of the 2010 Environmental Media Award for Best Documentary, the Sundance Film Festival Special Jury Prize, and the Yale Environmental Film Festival Grand Jury Prize. Using the momentum from the film's popular reception, Fox and the Gasland team successfully established a grassroots movement that was responsible for helping create the Frack Act and a moratorium of fracking in the Delaware River Shed. This thesis intends to determine what made Gasland so influential. Through a rhetorical criticism and media analysis, I will show how Fox's film ignited the debate on domestic natural gas production and has created a multi-public literacy that enables social change.

No description available.

Health at birth is considered an important indicator of health outcomes in adulthood. It is also shown to have a strong association with future educational attainment and labor market outcomes. I examine the effects of behavioral and environmental factors on infant health. The factors I focus on include alcohol consumption during pregnancy, extreme weather events associated with climate change, and pollution that may result from unconventional oil and natural gas development. In Chapter II, I examine the effects of point-of-sale alcohol warning signage that alcohol retailers are required to post in some states on alcohol use during pregnancy and on birth outcomes. I find that point-of-sale warning signs discourage alcohol consumption among pregnant women and are associated with a decrease in the odds of newborns having very low birth weight or being very pre-term. The findings of this research inform decision makers about a potentially effective mechanism through which alcohol consumption among pregnant women can be reduced. They also suggest causal evidence for the link between prenatal alcohol exposure and inferior health at birth. Chapter III documents that exposure to heat waves during pregnancy is associated with increased likelihood of the mother experiencing an adverse health condition during pregnancy and the newborn having an abnormal condition at birth. The results provide an assessment of the magnitude and timing of the effects of extreme heat events associated with climate change on infant health which is potentially helpful in enhancing the effectiveness of adaptation efforts. Finally, Chapter IV provides an empirical investigation of the link between unconventional oil and natural gas development and infant health. The results indicate that unconventional drilling activity is associated with a small, but statistically significant, decline in birth outcomes, especially for those living in rural areas. Given that it is estimated that the rapid expansion in unconventional oil and gas extraction will continue for at least a few more decades, the results of this study may contribute to the discussions related to initiation or tightening of regulations and monitoring efforts to control pollution. This dissertation includes previously unpublished co-authored material.