The thesis called "Reasons for restricting of the free movement of services" is focused on one of the fundamental freedoms of internal market, free movement of services, both in terms of theory and especially from the perspective of The Court of Justice of the European Union. In five chapters of the thesis is analysed the general characteristics of the free movement of services, the relationship to the other freedoms of the internal market and the legal basis of this freedom in the primary and secondary legislation of the European Union. First chapter is focused on historical development of the internal market of European Union and on principles on which internal market operates. Second chapter of this thesis defines the term "services" and examine the relationship to the other freedoms of the internal market as well as the legal basis of the free movement of services in the primary and secondary legislation of the European Union. Third chapter of the thesis is focused on the restrictions of the free movement of services, direct and indirect discrimination, non- discriminatory restrictions and also on the harmonization of standards. Forth chapter examine legitimate restriction of the free movement of services both in the primary and secondary legislation of the European Union. Purpose of the last...

This thesis investigates competition law, State aid law and free-movement law in their interaction with Article 11 TFEU’s obligation to integrate environmental protection requirements into all activities and policies of the Union. The Article is formulated in broad and sweeping terms which makes integrating environmental protection requirements complex and context-dependent. The challenge of integrating environmental considerations is further increased as such integration in competition, State aid and free- movement law is different from other areas of EU action. The three areas are the core provisions protecting the internal market by prohibiting certain actions of the Member States and undertakings. Unlike in other areas, the EU is therefore not in the position to develop or design the actions but has to scrutinise the measure according to pre-established parameters. To address this challenge, a novel functional approach to environmental integration is developed. The approach should facilitate a better understanding of environmental integration and in particular its application to competition law, State aid and free-movement law. An important element of this thesis equally the comparison between the three areas of law. It sheds light on conceptual issues that are not only relevant to the integration of environmental protection. The comparison advances the understanding in relation to questions such as how restrictions are defined and how the respective balancing tests are applied. The contribution of this research is therefore twofold. One the one hand, it compares how the different tests in competition, State aid and free-movement law operate, thereby offering opportunities for cross-fertilisation. On the other hand, this comparison and the improvements suggested as a result help to conceptualise environmental integration thereby paving the way for a more transparent and consistent integration of environmental protection in competition, State aid and free-movement law.

Le rôle intégratif que la Cour de justice des Communautés européennes (CJCE) a joué dans la construction européenne est bien connu et très documenté. Ce qui l'est moins ce sont les raisons qui l'ont motivé, et le motivent encore. Si certains se sont déjà penchés sur cette question, un aspect a néanmoins été complètement négligé, celui de l'influence qu'a pu avoir à cet égard le contexte conjoncturel sur la jurisprudence communautaire et plus précisément sur l'orientation que la Cour a choisi de lui donner. Dans ce cadre, les auditoires de la Cour ont un rôle déterminant. Pour s'assurer d'une bonne application de ses décisions, la Cour est en effet amenée à prendre en considération les attentes des États membres, des institutions européennes, de la communauté juridique (tribunaux nationaux, avocats généraux, doctrine et praticiens) et des ressortissants européens (citoyens et opérateurs économiques). Aussi, à la question du pourquoi la CJCE décide (ou non) d'intervenir, dans le domaine de la libre circulation des marchandises, en faveur de l'intégration économique européenne, j'avance l'hypothèse suivante: l'intervention de la Cour dépend d'une variable centrale : les auditoires, dont les attentes (et leur poids respectif) sont elles-mêmes déterminées par le contexte conjoncturel. L'objectif est de faire ressortir l'aspect plus idéologique de la prise de décision de la Cour, largement méconnu par la doctrine, et de démontrer que le caractère fluctuant de la jurisprudence communautaire dans ce domaine, et en particulier dans l'interprétation de l'article 28 du traité CE, s'explique par la prise en compte par la Cour des attentes de ses auditoires, lesquels ont majoritairement adhéré à l'idéologie néolibérale. Afin de mieux saisir le poids - variable - de chaque auditoire de la Cour, j'apprécierai, dans une première partie, le contexte conjoncturel de la construction européenne de 1990 à 2006 et notamment le virage néolibéral que celle-ci a opéré. L'étude des auditoires et de leur impact sur la jurisprudence fera l'objet de la seconde partie de ma thèse. Je montrerai ainsi que la jurisprudence communautaire est une jurisprudence « sous influence », essentiellement au service de la réalisation puis de l'approfondissement du marché intérieur européen. / The integrative role played by the Court of Justice of the European Communities (CJEC) in the construction of Europe is well known and documented. However the reasons that have motivated the CJEC in this role are far less known. Although some studies have been conducted on this topic, one aspect has been completely ignored: the influence of the conjunctural context on the European Community case law, and more precisely the orientation that the Court has chosen to give to the latter. Within this scope the Court's audiences play a determining role. To ensure that its decisions are well followed, the CJEC takes into consideration the expectations of the Member States, the European institutions, the judicial community (national tribunals, Advocates General, doctrine and practitioners), and the European citizens and economic operators. In regard to the question as to whether or not the CJEC decides to intervene in the domain of free movement of goods, in favour of the European economic integration, I argue the following hypothesis: the intervention of the Court depends on a central variable, that of the audiences, of which the expectations (and their relative weight) are determined by the conjunctural context. My objective is to point out the ideological aspects of the Court's decision making, mostly unknown to legal scholarship, and to demonstrate that the fluctuating character of case law in this domain, and more precisely in the interpretation of Article 28 of the CE Treaty, is explained by the Court’s taking into consideration the expectations of its audiences, which are mainly committed to the neoliberal ideology. In order to evaluate the varying weight of each audience of the CJEC, the first part of the thesis will delve into the conjunctural context and the European construction from 1990 to 2006 where in particular, we observe a turn towards neoliberalism. The study of the audiences and their impact on EC case law will be the subject of the second part of the thesis. I will show that this case law is "under influence", essentially to the service of the development and the strengthening of the European internal market.

The subject-matter of the presented thesis is cross-border healthcare in the European Union. The thesis focuses deeply on the overall evaluation of the recently adopted Directive on patients' rights. The primary objective of this thesis is to comprehensively analyse the new legislation on cross-border health care within the European Union, i.e. Directive on patients' rights. Based on theoretical findings, the thesis aims to assess the potential impact of the Directive on the provisions of cross-border healthcare within the European Union and its influence on the healthcare system in the Czech Republic. The contents of the thesis is divided into four chapters. The first chapter is introductory and provides information concerning the relevant provisions of primary law that provides European Union with competences in the area of health. The second chapter deals with the developments of the legal framework for cross- border healthcare in the European Union and clarifies in detail the specific nature of cross- border health care. Considerable focus is placed on analysis of concrete rights of migrant patients that are derived from the comprehensive case law of CJEU. The third chapter is exclusively devoted to the legal analysis of the various aspects of the Directive on patients' rights and evaluates the...

There have been three main sets of trends in the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union in the field of the internal market after 2004. The first set of trends concerned the criteria of legal analysis, i.e. the scope of EU rules on free movement, the concept of the restriction of free movement and the justification of such restrictions. The second set of trends in the case law is related to the fact that the Court completes its legal analysis by considerations linked to its value orientation of the Court, i.e. its liberalism, social tendencies, protection of fundamental rights, pragmatism and proactivity. The third trend in the case law of the internal market consisted in changing the focus of case law in the sense that the Court has begun to deal with more and more cases from sectoral fields, i.e. fields covered by secondary law.

La mondialisation interroge le dogme de la frontière. Peut-être que la représentation d’une ligne nette et tranchée séparant de manière catégorique et intemporelle un « dedans » et un « dehors » n’est pas la seule forme juridique possible de la frontière. Peut-être aussi que l’élimination des frontières dans le marché intérieur de l’Union européenne (au sens de l’article 26 TFUE) et l’établissement d’un « village-global », qui aurait irrémédiablement fait disparaître toute forme de démarcation, ne l’est pas non plus. Peut-être que la mondialisation n’est pas, en définitive, une invitation à s’interroger sur la déchéance ou la résurgence des frontières, mais l’occasion de réfléchir à leur pertinence afin de retrouver un sens à la notion de « frontière ». / Globalization questions the very dogma of the border. Perhaps the representation of the border as a clear and distinct line – separating unequivocally and timelessly – the “inside” from the “outside” is not the only possible legal status for the border. Perhaps the elimination of borders within the internal market of the European Union (in the sense of article 26 TFEU) and the implementation of a “global village”, which would have irreversibly erased all forms of dividing lines, do not match the legal reality of international trade. Perhaps globalization is not an invitation to question the decline or resurgence of borders, but an opportunity to think about their relevance in order to rediscover the very meaning of the notion of “border”.

Délimitant les souverainetés fiscales étatiques, les frontières fiscales sont au cœur des préoccupations de l’Union, des Etats membres et des entreprises. L’Union souhaite un marché intérieur sans frontières. Les Etats membres veulent préserver leurs frontières fiscales. L’opposition des volontés de l’Union et des Etats membres conduit à s’interroger sur la situation actuelle et pour l’avenir des frontières fiscales. La confrontation de ces volontés a engendré une dévaluation des frontières fiscales. L’intégration positive et négative prévue par le droit de l’Union a permis de rapprocher ou d’encadrer les législations fiscales des Etats membres. Toutefois, les Etats membres continuent de s’opposer à leur suppression. Mais l’Union change progressivement de position sur les frontières fiscales. Le marché intérieur doit se construire en tenant compte de ces frontières. La permanence des frontières fiscales est donc assurée, d’autant qu’elles savent s’adapter aux changements de la société. / In delimiting the tax sovereignty of the states apparatus, tax frontiers are at the heart of the Union’s, the State Members’ and also Companies’. The Union wants an internal market without frontiers. The State Members would like to maintain their tax frontiers. This opposition between the Union and the State Members therefore questions the present and future situation of the tax frontiers. This confrontation between the Union and the State Members has lead to a devaluation of tax frontiers. The positive and negative integration determined by the right of the Union has enabled the tax laws of the State Members to be linked closer together or be supervised. On the other hand, the State Members continue to refuse their suppression. But the Union is changing progressively its position regarding tax frontiers. The internal market must be built taking into account these frontiers. The permanence of fiscal frontiers is therefore ensured, especially since they can adapt to changes in society.

Le concept de renvoi mobile trouve son origine dans la littérature italienne la plus distinguée en théorie du droit international privé. Apparu, dans ce contexte, sous le nom de rinvio mobile, il était positionné sur la branche extravertie de la règle de rattachement, afin de rendre compte de l’insertion des normes étrangères, considérées dans leur contenu, dans l’ordre juridique pris pour base du raisonnement. À cet effet, la règle de rattachement était tenue pour une «norme en blanc», prête à recevoir, par le biais d’une incorporation, n’importe quel contenu normatif. L’ordre juridique de renvoi, ainsi disposé à reprendre à son compte la totalité des dispositions adoptées par les droits étrangers au gré des renvois effectués en double face du rattachement, devait bien vite prendre les traits d’une mosaïque de normes issues de toutes origines et introduites de manière somme toute erratique en son sein. La présente étude renouvelle les bases et les fonctions du renvoi mobile pour proposer, à travers lui, un concept relationnel capable de s’immiscer dans la sphère du droit international privé dans le cadre de l’adaptation de la réglementation des situations individuelles issue des droits nationaux à la garantie européenne des libertés de circulation. Le renvoi au droit étranger répond à une logique « plurilatérale », dont la reconnaissance des décisions, actes, ou situations juridiques constitue une expression méthodologique. Le renouvellement du concept permet d’envisager le «plurilatéralisme» comme une nouvelle identité méthodologique, distincte du bilatéralisme et de l’unilatéralisme. / The concept of “renvoi mobile” was born in the most distinguished private international law’s scholarship in Italy, where it was known as “rinvio mobile”. Situated on the “foreign-oriented” side of the choice-of-law rules, it gave them the ability to insert, by way of incorporation, the foreign applicable rules’ content into the legal order of the forum. For such a reading to be plausible, the choice-of-law rule was considered as “norma in bianco”, i.e. contentless rule. Thus, it seemed to be able to receive every and any normative content. The counterpart of this was that the state’s legal order seemed to be willing (or obliged) to adopt all the rules existing in foreign law as if they were its own, and, consequently, to become a patchwork of different norms, with different origins, and introduced randomly. The present work reconstructs the basis and the functions of the “rinvio mobile” in order to propose it as a relational concept able to take place in the sphere of private international law, in the process of adaptation of the regulation given to private situations by national legal orders according to the European rights of free movement. The “renvoi” to foreign law is governed by a “plurilateral” logic. The recognition of foreign decisions, acts or legal situations, is a methodological expression of this logic. The renewal of this concept enables “plurilateralism” to be considered as a new methodological identity distinct from bilateralism and unilateralism.

<p>Geographical indications designate products which have a specific geographical origin, which can either be national, regional or local. The subject is complicated since geographical indications arises a large number of questions There are EC regulations which regulate the protection of geographical indications, but since the field has not yet been exhaustively harmonized, the existence of national rules of protection is therefore still possible, which can lead to trade barriers between the member states. Consequently, one problem consists in whether it may be legitimate to restrict the free movement of goods by article 28 in the EC Treaty by referring to national rules of protection and to what extent such measures may be justified by article 30 or by the Cassis doctrine. An additional question consists in how the line between geographical indications and generic terms is to be established appropriately. Further, geographical indications are exposed to improper use by other dishonest commercial operators and therefore the possibilities of protection against unfair competition and misleading are also discussed in the thesis. Since there are several questions which are unanswered regarding geographical indications, the purpose of this essay is to analyze what kind of intellectual property right geographical indications constitute and how they are protected.</p>

<p>Denna uppsats tar sikte på att utreda om det existerar fri rörlighet inom EU även för aktiebolag, d.v.s. om aktiebolag fritt kan flytta sitt säte mellan olika medlemsstater utan att problem uppstår. Dessutom undersöks vad som gjorts inom EU för att harmonisera reglerna på det bolagsrättsliga området. Slutligen och som huvudsyfte för uppsatsen görs en ansats att försöka ta reda på varför den övernationella bolagsformen europabolag inte blivit någon succé bland svenska företagare sedan den infördes i oktober 2004.</p><p>Beträffande den första frågan konstateras att aktiebolag inte har samma fria rörlighet som fysiska personer, trots att EGF föreskriver detta. Anledningen är att medlemsländerna tillämpar olika lagvalsprinciper som i många fall gör det omöjligt för bolag att byta nationalitet utan att först likvideras och sedan omregistreras. Detta har även konstaterats i ett antal rättsfall från EG-domstolen där domstolen ansett att rättsläget inte varit förenligt med EGF och att åtgärder bör vidtas.</p><p>Harmoniseringsarbetet på det bolagsrättsliga området inom EU har pågått sedan 1950-talet och har bl.a. bestått i att ta fram ett antal bolagsdirektiv för att uppnå en minimistandard i samtliga medlemsstaters lagstiftning. Det fjortonde och senaste i raden av dessa direktiv ämnar lösa den problematik som i dagsläget finns beträffande bolagsflytt. Direktivet har dock inte antagits ännu och ingen vet heller när eller om detta sker.</p><p>Utöver bolagsdirektiv finns tre olika övernationella bolagsformer – europeiska ekonomiska intressegrupperingar, europakooperativ och europabolag – vars syfte är att underlätta företagens samarbete över gränserna. Just europabolaget är något som kommissionen är mycket stolta över trots detta har inte många europabolag registrerats. I Sverige finns i maj 2007 endast fem europabolag registrerade och anledningen till detta tycks vara flera men ett svåröverskådligt regelverk och avsaknaden av en övernationell skattelösning verkar vara de största, åtminstone om man tolkar de svar som ett antal svenska företag lämnade på en konsultation från kommissionen våren 2006.</p><p>Mina egna åsikter om europabolag överensstämmer till stor del med de åsikter som finns hos svenska företag och jag skulle gärna se att regleringen om europabolag var mer enhetlig och inte styrs så mycket av nationell rätt, vilket är fallet i dagsläget. Jag är dessutom tämligen övertygad om att mängden europabolag kommer att öka i takt med att SE-förordningen justeras något och fler företag inser europabolagets fördelar.</p> / <p>This essay sets out to investigate if companies are entitled to free movement within the EU and if they without problem can move their residence from country to country. The essay also contains a report on what is done within the EU to harmonize company law. Finally, a study is made to investigate why the European company hasn’t been that successful among companies in Sweden.</p><p>Concerning the first question the answer is that companies in practice aren’t entitled to free movmenet even though it’s prescribed in the EC legislation. The reason to this is that the member states apply different principles that make it impossible for companies to move to another state without being liquidated in the first state and re-established in the second state. The EC court of justice has in several rulings stated that this problem has to be taken care of since it’s inconsistent with the EC legislation.</p><p>The work with harmonization of the company law within the EU has been going on for about fifty years and has consisted of different directives to reach a minimum standard in all members states. The fourteenth and last of these directives will make it easier for companies to move but no one knows when this directive will be adopted by the EC council.</p><p>Besides the directives there also exist three different types of companies that are common within the whole union. These companies are the European Economic Interest Grouping, the European Cooperative Society and the European company. The European company hasn’t been very successful and one reason for that is that the legislation is difficult to understand since it’s different in every member state, at least according to a couple of Swedish companies that participated in a consultation made by the European commission in spring 2006.</p><p>My own opinions on the European company are mostly the same as the Swedish companies and I would like to see an even more uniform legislation. I also think that we in a couple of years will see a lot more European companies as time goes by and the cracks in the legislation has been fixed.</p>