A partir de 148 amostras com parasitóides da família Braconidae, provenientes de levantamentos realizados com as moscas-das-frutas no Estado de São Paulo, foi feito estudo taxonômico, de distribuição e de associação com as moscas hospedeiras e fruteiras. Em 33 municípios, foram coletados 3.009 exemplares. A subfamília Opiinae foi a mais abundante com 96,2% dos exemplares. Apenas 3,8% dos parasitóides pertenciam à subfamília Alysiinae. Foram coletadas seis espécies de braconídeos: Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti), Doryctobracon brasiliensis (Szépligeti), Utetes anastrephae (Viereck), Opius bellus (Wesmael) e Opius sp. (Wesmael), além do alisiíneo Asobara anastrephae (Muesebeck). A maior parte dos braconídeos (77,5%) pertencia a D. areolatus. Esta espécie foi associada ao maior número de espécies frutíferas (26), em 7 famílias, e ocorreu na maioria dos municípios amostrados (30). Foi associada a Anastrepha fraterculus (Wied.), A. obliqua (Macquart) e A. amita Zucchi, sendo obtida pela primeira vez de larvas de moscas em frutos de wampi, Clausena lansium (Lour) Skeels, e de canela-batalha, Cryptocarya aschersoniana Mez. Doryctobracon brasiliensis foi associada apenas A. fraterculus, sendo registrado pela primeira vez em ameixa-japonesa, Prunus salicina Lindl. Não foi possível associar as demais espécies de parasitóides às moscas-das-frutas. Opius sp. foi associada às larvas em canela-batalha (primeiro registro de planta associada). A percentagem de parasitismo de tefritídeos nos 33 municípios foi de 7,75%, variando de 0,02% a 40%. Foi elaborada uma chave de identificação para as espécies. / This work presents the results of a survey of braconid fruit fly parasitoids from 33 localities in the State of São Paulo. In addition to the taxonomic studies, data of geographical distribution and association of braconid species to insect hosts and associated plants were also performed. A total of 3,009 specimens were colleted. The subfamily Opiinae was the most abundant with 96.2% of specimens colleted, and only 3.8% of the parasitoids belonged to the subfamily Alysiinae. Six species of braconids were collected: Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti), Doryctobracon brasiliensis (Szépligeti), Utetes anastrephae (Viereck), Opius bellus (Wesmael) and Opius sp. (Wesmael), beyond the alisiíneo Asobara anastrephae (Muesebeck). Most of the braconids (77.5%) belonged to D. areolatus. This species was associated with the highest number of fruit tree species (26), in 7 families, and occurred in the majority of the cities sampled (30). It was associated to Anastrepha fraterculus (Wied.), A. obliqua (Macquart) and A. amita Zucchi, and it is recorded for the first time from fruit fly larvae in wampi, Clausena lansium (Lour) Skeels, and in "canela-batalha" fruits, Cryptocarya aschersoniana Mez. Doryctobracon brasiliensis was associated only to A. fraterculus, and it is recorded for the first time in fruit fly larvae in plum, Prunus salicina Lindl. It was not possible to associate the other parasitoid species to the fruit fly species. Opius sp. was associated with the fruit fly larvae in "canela-batalha" (first record of associate plant). The percentage of tephritid parasitism in the 33 cities was of 7.75%, varying from 0.02% to 40%. A key to identification for the braconid species was elaborated.

O Brasil é o maior produtor de laranjas do mundo, porém os problemas fitossanitários, como a incidência da mosca-das-frutas, vêm acarretando sérios impactos negativos de ordem sócio-econômica e ambiental. O município de Caraá, RS, está nos perímetros das regiões infestadas pela mosca-das-frutas, sendo a cultura da laranja a mais prejudicada por esse inseto. Para que o manejo da moscas-das-frutas seja eficiente e sustentável é interessante que o mesmo se baseie nos princípios da Agroecologia, requerendo um conhecimento prévio de vários aspectos que possibilitem o diagnóstico dessa praga. Nesse contexto, o presente estudo teve por objetivo contribuir para o controle da mosca-das-frutas nos pomares de laranjeiras do município de Caraá, RS. Para tanto, o trabalho foi dividido em duas grandes etapas. Na primeira etapa realizou-se o diagnóstico da incidência da mosca-dasfrutas nos pomares de laranjeiras do município de Caraá através da caracterização da área de estudo, da cultura da laranjeira e da incidência da mosca-das-frutas, demonstrando a espacialização das principais localidades produtoras de laranja. Utilizaram-se como fontes de pesquisa, bibliografias e entrevistas. Para a segunda etapa foi elaborado e aplicado na área de estudo um Plano de Manejo da mosca-das-frutas baseado na Agroecologia, onde foi proposto: o levantamento das moscas-das-frutas com quatro armadilhas, realizado no pomar experimental da localidade de Rio dos Sinos, Caraá, para identificar suas espécies, bem como para verificar as flutuações populacionais das moscas-das-frutas, estudando as variáveis que poderiam influenciar o tamanho destas populações; a amostragem de frutos nas principais localidades produtoras de laranjas para também identificar as espécies de moscas-das-frutas e/ou seus parasitóides, além de determinar a associação entre as espécies de plantas hospedeiras e as espécies de moscas-das-frutas; a aplicação de práticas de controle, como ensacamento dos frutos, por exemplo, realizado no pomar experimental. Após o período de estudo constatou-se que a variedade de laranja mais produzida no Caraá é a Valência. As principais localidades produtoras de laranjas são: Alto Caraá, Alto Lageadinho, Alto Rio dos Sinos, Fraga, e Rio dos Sinos. A área ocupada para o cultivo de laranjeiras é de aproximadamente 82,5 ha, e a produção média é de 290 toneladas. Em relação ao diagnóstico da incidência da mosca-das-frutas verificou-se que a infestação é resultante de um conjunto de fatores: diminuição dos inimigos naturais, conseqüente do uso desordenado de agroquímicos; precária fiscalização fitossanitária do trânsito de frutas frescas; desmatamento, o que favoreceu a migração dessas moscas para as laranjeiras; e ampla gama de hospedeiros de mosca-das-frutas. Através do monitoramento da mosca-das-frutas com armadilhas no pomar experimental de Rio dos Sinos, no período de 12 meses, foram obtidos apenas exemplares da espécie Anastrepha fraterculus, num total de 1021 fêmeas. O pico da flutuação populacional da A. fraterculus ocorreu no mês de outubro, provavelmente relacionado à oferta de laranjas, pois o período de maior captura coincide com a época de frutificação da laranja Valência. A manutenção dessa mosca nos outros meses do ano pode ser associado à presença de hospedeiros de A. fraterculus próximos ao pomar experimental. A flutuação populacional da mosca não correlacionou com nenhum parâmetro climático analisado. O levantamento dos frutos hospedeiros Psidium guayava (goiaba), Citrus sp. (Laranja-de-Umbigo) e Prunus persica (pêssego) localizados próximos ao pomar experimental permitiu associar tais frutas com a espécie A. fraterculus. No levantamento da mosca-das-frutas através da amostragem de frutos nas principais localidades produtoras de laranjas de Caraá verificou-se: a presença de nove moscas-das-frutas, todas da espécie Anastrepha fraterculus; a associação dessa espécie com as variedades de laranjas, Natal Umbigo e Valência, bem como a ausência de parasitóides nos frutos amostrados. A prática de ensacamento das laranjas realizada no pomar experimental de Rio dos Sinos, Caraá, mostrou-se muito eficiente, uma vez que praticamente todos os frutos ficaram protegidos da mosca, sendo colhidos intactos. / Brazil is the largest producer of oranges of the world, however fitosanitary problems, as the incidence of fruit flies is carting serious negative impacts of socioeconomic and environmental order. The Municipal district of Caraá, RS, is in the perimeters of the areas infested by fruit flies, having the culture of the orange the most prejudiced by this insect. So that the handling of fruit flies is efficient and maintainable needs to base in the beginnings of the Agroecology, requesting a previous knowledge of several aspects to make possible the diagnosis of that curse. In that context the present study had for objective to contribute for the control of fruit fly in the orchards of orange trees of the municipal district of Caraá, RS. For so much, the work was divided in two great stages. In the first stage the diagnosis of the incidence of fruit flies took place in the orchards of orange trees of the municipal district of Caraá through the characterization of the study area, the orange tree culture and the incidence of fruit flies, demonstrating the disposition in the space of the main places producing of orange. Bibliographies and interviews were used as research sources. For the second stage it was elaborated and applied in the study area a Plan of Handling of fruit flies based on Agroecology, where it was proposed: the rising of fruit flies with four traps, accomplished at the experimental orchard in Rio dos Sinos, Caraá, to identify its species, as well as to verify the population flotations of fruit flies, studying the variables that could influence the size of these populations; the sampling of fruits in the main places producing of oranges for also to identify the species of fruit flies and/or their parasitoids, besides determining the association between the species of host trees and the species of fruit flies; the application of control practices, as bagged fruits, for instance, accomplished at the experimental orchard. After the study period it was verified that the orange variety more produced in Caraá is Valencia. The main places producing of oranges are: High Caraá, High Lageadinho, High Rio dos Sinos, Fraga, and Rio dos Sinos. The busy area for the cultivation of orange trees is of 82,5 ha approximately, and the medium production is of 290 tons. In relation to the diagnosis of the incidence of fruit flies it was verified that the infestation is resulting from a group of factors: the natural enemies' decrease, consequent of the disordered use of pesticides; precarious fitosanitary fiscalization of the traffic of fresh fruits; deforestation, what favored the migration of those flies for the orange trees; and wide range of hosts of fruit flies. Through the action of monitoring the fruit flies with traps in the experimental orchard of Rio dos Sinos, in the period of 12 months, they were just obtained copies of the species Anastrepha fraterculus, in a total of 1021 females. The pick of the population flotation of the A. fraterculus happened in the month of October, probably related to the offer of oranges, because, the period of larger capture coincides with the time of fructify of the orange Valencia. The maintenance of that fly in the other months of the year it can be associated to the presence of hosts of A. fraterculus closed to the experimental orchard. The population flotation of the fly didn't correlate with any climatic parameter analyzed. The rising of the fruits hosts Psidium guayava (guava), Citrus sp. (Orange-of-navel) and Prunus persica (peach) located close to the experimental orchard, allowed to associate such fruits with the species A. fraterculus. In the rising of fruit flies through the sampling of fruits in the main places producing of oranges of Caraá was verified: the presence of nine fruit flies, all of the species Anastrepha fraterculus; the association of that species with the varieties of oranges Natal, Umbigo and Valencia, as well as the parasitoids absence in the fruits of sample. The practice of bagging oranges accomplished at the experimental orchard of Rio dos sinos, Caraá, was shown very efficient, once practically all of the fruits were protected of the fly, being picked intact.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:40:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T13:57:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 04015.pdf: 1118706 bytes, checksum: cfb96bf2d7bcbe122082fa953b52e435 (MD5) / Tese (Doutoramento) / IPEN/T / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

Os estudos de diversidade de espécies são importantes para compreender os aspectos ecológicos das comunidades de moscas-das-frutas. Todavia, nos estudos de diversidade de moscas-das-frutas, têm sido discutidos principalmente os espécimes coletados em armadilhas tipo McPhail. Entretanto, no presente estudo, além dos dados de armadilhas, a diversidade foi também baseada nas moscas-das-frutas obtidas diretamente dos hospedeiros. Destsa forma, foi realizada, pela primeira vez, uma análise comparativa de espécies de Anastrepha coletadas em uma mesma área em armadilhas e nos hospedeiros. A diversidade de espécies de Anastrepha foi discutida, pela primeira vez, por meio da modelagem espacial. O levantamento de moscas-das-frutas foi realizado em 48 pontos de coleta distribuídos pelo campus \"Luiz de Queiroz\", Piracicaba, SP. Uma armadilha, contendo proteína hidrolisada de milho, foi instalada em cada ponto de coleta e os hospedeiros foram amostrados nas proximidades. As coletas com armadilhas foram realizadas semanalmente de julho de 1998 a junho de 1999. Os hospedeiros (26 espécies) foram amostrados de janeiro a dezembro de 1999. As espécies de Anastrepha coletadas nos dois métodos foram comparadas por meio de parâmetros faunísticos, índices de diversidade e flutuação populacional. As moscas-das-frutas obtidas nos hospedeiros foram comparadas por meio da análise de agrupamento (Sorensen e Bray-Curtis). A interação das espécies, nos dois métodos de coleta, foi baseada no heat map graph. O padrão de distribuição da diversidade foi analisado por meio de modelagem espacial (Krigagem). Foram coletadas 19.660 fêmeas de espécies de Anastrepha em armadilhas e 10.453 nos hospedeiros. Foram capturadas mais espécies de Anastrepha nas armadilhas (18) do que nos hospedeiros (7). Nas armadilhas, A. fraterculus, A. obliqua, A. bistrigata, A. pseudoparallela, A. barbiellinii e A. sororcula foram predominantes, mas somente A. fraterculus foi a mais abundante. Nos frutos, A. obliqua, A. fraterculus e A. bisgrigata foram predominantes, mas somente A. obliqua foi a mais abundante. A maior abundância de espécimes foi obtida em seriguela e a maior riqueza de espécies foi obtida em goiaba e em citros. Sete grupos foram formados pela presença e ausência de espécies de Anastrepha pelo coeficiente de similaridade de Sorensen e cinco grupos foram formados pela abundância de espécimes pelo coeficiente de Bray-Curtis. As características da comunidade (diversidade, riqueza, equitabilidade e dominância) diferiram nos dois métodos de coleta. Das seis espécies compartilhadas nas armadilhas e nos hospedeiros, apenas A. fraterculus e A. obliqua tiveram interação mais forte com os dois métodos de coleta. O pico populacional de espécies de Anastrepha ocorreu em setembro (armadilhas) e em fevereiro (hospedeiros). A disponibilidade de hospedeiros foi o fator que mais interferiu na dinâmica populacional. A diversidade de espécies de Anastrepha se concentrou nas áreas próximas aos fragmentos de mata. A maior diversidade ocorreu nas proximidades dos fragmentos acima de 100.000 m2. / Studies on diversity of fruit fly species are crucial for understanding ecological aspects of their communities of fruit flies. These studies have been carried out mostly on fruit flies collected in McPhail-type traps. Consequently, diversity of fruit flies has been discussed mostly on trapped specimens. Nonetheless, in this study, besides trapped specimens, diversity was also based on specimens obtained directly from hosts. Thus, it was performed, for the first time, a comparative analysis of Anastrepha species from same area collected in traps and from hosts. Additionally, diversity of Anastrepha species was discussed, for the first time, based on spatial modeling. Fruit fly survey was performed in 48 collecting points distributed throughout \"Luiz de Queiroz\" campus, in Piracicaba, state of São Paulo, Brazil. A trap, baited with hydrolyzed corn protein, was installed at each collecting point, and fruits nearby were sampled. Collections with traps were carried out weekly from July 1998 to June 1999. Hosts (26 species) were sampled from January to December 1999. Anastrepha species collected in both methods were compared by mean of faunistic parameters, diversity indices and population fluctuation. Fruit flies obtained from hosts were compared by mean cluster analysis (Sorensen e Bray-Curtis). The species interaction, in both collecting methods, was based on heat map graph. The diversity distribution pattern was analysed by mean of the spatial modelling (Kriging). A total of 19,660 females of Anastrepha species were collected in the traps, and 10,453 were obtained from hosts. It was captured more Anastrepha species (18) in the traps than in the hosts (7). In the traps, A. fraterculus, A. obliqua, A. bistrigata, A. pseudoparallela, A. barbiellinii and A. sororcula were more abundant, but only A. fraterculus was predominant. In the hosts, A. obliqua, A. fraterculus and A. bistrigata were predominant, but only A. obliqua was more abundant. The greatest abundance of specimens was obtained in red mombin and the greatest species richness in guava and citrus. Seven groups were formed by presence and absence of Anastrepha species for the Sorensen similarity coefficient, and five groups for the abundance of specimens for the Bray-Curtis coefficient. The community characteristics (diversity, richness, equitability, and dominance) differ in both collecting methods. Six species were collected in both traps and hosts, but only A. fraterculus and A. obliqua had stronger interaction with these collecting methods. The population peak of Anastrepha species occurred in September (traps) and in February (hosts). The host availability was the main factor that interfered with population dynamic. The Anastrepha species diversity concentrated in areas nearby of forest fragments. The highest diversity was adjacent to forest fragments above 100,000 m2.

A rich diversity of social behaviours exists in the animal kingdom, and these behaviours have evolved to perform a variety of adaptive functions. Social behaviours show variation both among and within species, however the mechanisms that give rise to this variation are not well understood. Using fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), my goal was to uncover the genetic and behavioural mechanisms that underpin natural variation in two different social behaviours: sociability and sexual aggression. First, I showed that sociability, which is the tendency of animals to engage in friendly activities together, is influenced by indirect genetic effects (IGEs), and that encounters among individuals drive these effects (Chapter 2). I then showed that sociability and social plasticity have low-moderate heritability (Chapter 3), and sociability is not correlated between the sexes or with activity. I then generated lineages of flies with high and low sociability using artificial selection (Chapter 4). The evolved lineages had significantly diverged sociability which was not associated with fitness measures or nearest-neighbor distances, but was negatively correlated with intrasexual aggression (Chapter 4). Finally, in sexual aggression, which I quantified as male forced copulation rate, I showed that evolved differences and differences due to social plasticity were both associated with the differential expression of many genes, but only a few of these genes were significant in both (Chapter 5). I also showed that these sets of genes are enriched in neuropeptide hormone and serotonin gene ontology categories, and that 4 of 7 chosen genes were validated for their effects on sexual aggression. Overall, this thesis sheds light on the complex mechanisms that underlie variation in these social behaviours, and it paves the way for future research to further elucidate some of these mechanisms, especially on the genetic basis of sociability using the evolved lineages I generated. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Individual animals tend to vary in many traits including social behaviours. Using fruit flies, my goal was to understand what causes individuals to vary in two social behaviours: sociability and sexual aggression. I found that highly sociable flies tended to influence other flies to become more sociable due to a change in how much these flies interacted. I also found that individual differences in sociability are moderately heritable, and the genetic variation contributing to this is different between the sexes. Also, less sociable flies tended to be more aggressive than highly sociable flies. Finally, for sexual aggression, I showed that variation in a male’s success in forcibly mating with a female was associated with changes in the expression of hundreds of genes, but these changes were mostly unique for evolved versus environmentally induced variation. Future work will similarly look to identify genes involved with individual differences in sociability.

Os levantamentos das espécies de Anastrepha foram realizados com armadilhas do tipo McPhail contendo torula (atraente alimentar) em: (1) Monte Alegre do Sul (janeiro de 2002 a dezembro de 2003) e (2) Monte Alto (janeiro a dezembro de 2004). Foram capturados 30.516 espécimes (15.770 fêmeas e 14.746 machos) em Monte Alegre do Sul, 22.825 exemplares (11.739 machos e 11.086 fêmeas) em Monte Alto. As identificações foram baseadas nas fêmeas. Foram identificadas 13 espécies em Monte Alegre do Sul, das quais, A. fraterculus e A. bistrigata foram predominantes. Em 2003, houve maior diversidade de espécies (11 das 13 espécies). Em Monte Alto, foram identificadas oito espécies, sendo A. fraterculus e A. sororcula predominantes. Os picos populacionais variaram entre as três principais espécies em Monte Alegre do Sul. Para A. fraterculus (Wied.), os picos ocorreram em março/abril e setembro/outubro; para A. bistrigata e A. obliqua, de março a maio. Em Monte Alto, os picos populacionais de A. fraterculus ocorreram em janeiro e outubro de 2004, sendo o acme populacional em outubro. Anastrepha sororcula apresentou um único pico em janeiro, mantendo-se com baixa população no restante do ano. A disponibilidade de goiaba foi o fator principal que influenciou o nível populacional das principais espécies de Anastrepha. Não ficou evidente a influência direta dos fatores climáticos sobre as populações das moscasdas- frutas em Monte Alegre do Sul. Em Monte Alto, os picos populacionais das principais espécies foram um pouco diferentes, ou seja, A. fraterculus teve dois picos (janeiro e outubro), um deles sem a presença de frutos no pomar (janeiro), e A. sororcula ocorreu somente em janeiro (sem frutos no pomar). Houve correlação positiva entre o alto índice de captura de A. sororcula com a precipitação pluvial do município. / Surveys of the Anastrepha species using torula-baited McPhail traps (food attractant) were carried out in Monte Alegre do Sul (January 2002 to December 2003) and Monte Alto (January to December 2004). A total of 30,516 specimens (15,770 females and 14,746 males) were captured in Monte Alegre do Sul, and 22,825 specimens (11,739 males and 11,086 females) in Monte Alto. Species identification was exclusively based on females. Thirteen species were recorded in Monte Alegre do Sul, from which A. fraterculus and A. bistrigata were predominant. The diversity of species was greater in 2003 than in 2004 (11 out of 13 species). Eight species were identified in Monte Alto, from which A. fraterculus and A. sororcula were predominant. The population peaks varied among the three major species in Monte Alegre do Sul. Anastrepha fraterculus peaked in March/April and September/October, and A. bistrigata and A. obliqua from March to May. In Monte Alto, population peaks of A. fraterculus occurred in January and October 2004, with a higher peak in October. Anastrepha sororcula showed a single peak in January, maintaining a low population level during the year. The availability of guava was the main factor that influenced the population level of the major Anastrepha species. No clear indication of the effect of climatic factors on the population density of fruit flies in Monte Alegre do Sul was obtained. The population peaks of the major species were slightly different in Monte Alto as compared to Monte Alegre do Sul, as A. fraterculus peaked twice (January and October), once in January when fruits were unavailable. The peak occurrence of Anastrepha sororcula (January) also coincided with the unavailability of fruits in the orchard. A positive correlation between the high rate of capture of A. sororcula with rainfall in the orchard in Monte Alegre was verified.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-12T19:18:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RaimundoIRS_TESE.pdf: 1193128 bytes, checksum: 507928ca7e543ba3ae01570b0c9bc9ee (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-09-01 / Brazil, producing more than 40 million ton of fruits in 2013, is one of the three greatest fruit producer in the world. In spite of the potential, we see some difficulties on the management of the cultures, specially phytosanitary problems. Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) represent one of the great phytosanitary for fruit growing due to damage on the fruits and quarantine restrictions, whose loss is equivalent one billion dollars per year. Thus, this work aimed to know the species of fruit flies through some traps, as well as accomplishing a prospection of host vegetable species on the region Baixo Jaguaribe, Ceará. The study was accomplished from 2010 to 2013, being divided in two stages: capture of flies, accomplished through McPhail traps Hydrolysed Maize Protein at 5% and periodical collections of fruits form cultivated or wild species. Identification of fruit flies species was accomplished in Applied Entomology Laboratory of UFERSA, considering female morphological characters. The number of fruit flies captured with traps was 6.350 and 9.626 were captured using fruit collection, being collected 64 vegetable species, from which 17 were infected by Ceratitis capitata and/or Anastrepha spp. C. capitata species represent approximately 75% of collected species; six species Anastrepha: Anastrepha sororcula, A. zenildae, A. obliqua, A. dissimilis, A. pickeli and A. alveata, being the last one registered for the first time in the state of Ceará. A. sororcula represents 72% of females and is associated specially to guava. A. zenildae is associated to guava, juazeiro, castanhola and murici and A. obliqua is associated to cajarana. The greatest infestation index for C. capitata were observed in castanhola, sapoti, seriguela, pitanga, acerola, guava and murici and for Anastrepha spp., murici, guava and juazeiro / O Brasil, com uma produção superior a 40 milhões de toneladas de frutas produzidas no ano de 2013, é um dos três maiores produtores de frutas do mundo. Apesar de todo este potencial, ainda nos deparamos com algumas dificuldades no manejo das culturas com ênfase aos problemas fitossanitários. As moscas-das-frutas (Diptera: Tephritidae) constituem um dos grandes problemas fitossanitários para a fruticultura em função dos danos diretos nos frutos e em virtude das restrições quarentenárias, cujos prejuízos chegam a 1 bilhão de dólares anuais. Portanto, este trabalho teve como objetivo conhecer as espécies de moscas-das-frutas por meio de armadilhas, como também realizar uma prospecção de espécies vegetais hospedeiras na região do Baixo Jaguaribe, Ceará. O estudo foi realizado durante o período de 2010 a 2013, sendo dividido em duas etapas: captura das moscas, realizadas através do uso de armadilhas McPhail com proteína hidrolisada de milho a 5% e coletas periódicas de frutos de espécies cultivadas e/ou silvestre. A identificação das espécies de moscas-das-frutas foi realizada no Laboratório de Entomologia Aplicada da UFERSA, com base em caracteres morfológicos das fêmeas. O número de moscas-das-frutas capturadas com uso das armadilhas foi de 6.350 e por meio de coletas de frutos 9.626 exemplares, sendo coletados frutos de 64 espécies vegetais, das quais 17 estavam infestadas por Ceratitis capitata e/ou Anastrepha spp. A espécie C. capitata representa cerca de 75% das espécies coletadas; foram identificadas seis espécies Anastrepha: Anastrepha sororcula, A. zenildae, A. obliqua, A. dissimilis, A. pickeli e A. alveata, sendo esta última registrada pela primeira vez no estado do Ceará. A. sororcula representa 72% do total de fêmeas e está associada principalmente a goiaba; A. zenildae a goiaba, juazeiro, castanhola e murici e A. obliqua a cajarana. Os maiores índices de infestação para C. capitata foram verificados em castanhola, sapoti, seriguela, pitanga, acerola, goiaba e murici e para Anastrepha spp. murici, goiaba e juazeiro

This thesis has two focuses. The first problem facing the olive industry in the Eastern Cape is the growers’ perceptions of both what the industry will provide them and what a pest management program might entail. The second focus is the biology of olive pests in the Eastern Cape in terms of understanding their populations and their natural enemies on private farms, with future hopes of understanding how Integrated Pest Management strategies can be developed for this crop. Eastern Cape private farmers, small-scale farmers and workers from agricultural training institutions were interviewed regarding the history and cultivation of the local olive crop. Only one commercially viable olive grove was identified; other groves were small, experimental pilot ventures. The introduction of olives to small-scale farmers and agricultural training schools was generally a top-down initiative that led to a lack of sense of ownership and the trees being neglected. Other problems included poor human capital; poor financial capital; lack of adequate support; lack of knowledge transfer and stability; lack of communication and evaluation procedures of the project; miscommunication; and finally, olive pests. Apart from hesitancy to plant at a commercial scale, the main problem facing private farmers (Varnam Farm, Hewlands Farm and Springvale Farm) was pests. Therefore an investigation of pests from private farms was conducted ranging from collection of cultivated and wild olive fruit and flea beetle larvae for parasitism, trapping systems both for fruit flies and olive flea beetle adults. A survey of olive fruits yielded larval fruit flies of the families Tephritidae (Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), B. biguttula (Bezzi) and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann)) and Drosophilidae (Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen)) from wild olives (O. europaea cuspidata (Wall. ex G. Don) Cif.) but none from cultivated olives (O. e. europaea L.). Braconid wasps (Opiinae and Braconinae) were reared only from fruits containing B. oleae and B. biguttula. This suggests that B. oleae is not of economic significance in the Eastern Cape, perhaps because it is controlled to a significant level by natural enemies, but B. biguttula may be a potential economic pest. A survey of adult fruit flies using ChamP traps baited with ammonium bicarbonate and spiroketal capsules and Sensus trap baited with methyl eugenol and Questlure confirmed the relative importance of B. biguttula over B. oleae. ChamP traps were over 50 times better than Sensus traps for mass trapping of B. biguttula but both were ineffective for trapping B. oleae and C. capitata. Six indigenous flea beetles of the genus Argopistes Motschulsky (Chrysomelidae: Alticinae) were found, three described by Bryant in 1922 and 1944 and three new species. Their morphology was investigated by scanning electron microscopy and mutivariate morphometric analysis. The leaf-mining larvae are pests of wild and cultivated olives in South Africa and threaten the local olive industry. At Springvale Farm, A. oleae Bryant and A. sexvittatus Bryant preferred the upper parts of trees, near new leaves. Pseudophanomeris inopinatus (Blkb.) (Braconidae) was reared from 23 Argopistes larvae. The beetle larvae might not be controlled to a significant level by natural enemies because the rate of parasitism was low. The olive flea beetles showed no attraction to traps containing various volatile compounds as baits. The lace bug, Plerochila australis Distant (Tingidae), was sometimes a pest. It showed a preference for the underside of leaves on the lower parts of the trees. A moth, Palpita unionalis Hübner (Crambidae), was reared in very low numbers and without parasitoids. A twig-boring beetle larva, chalcidoid parasitoids and seed wasps of the families Eurytomidae, Ormyridae and Eupelmidae were also recorded.

Os levantamentos das espécies de Anastrepha foram realizados com armadilhas do tipo McPhail contendo torula (atraente alimentar) em: (1) Monte Alegre do Sul (janeiro de 2002 a dezembro de 2003) e (2) Monte Alto (janeiro a dezembro de 2004). Foram capturados 30.516 espécimes (15.770 fêmeas e 14.746 machos) em Monte Alegre do Sul, 22.825 exemplares (11.739 machos e 11.086 fêmeas) em Monte Alto. As identificações foram baseadas nas fêmeas. Foram identificadas 13 espécies em Monte Alegre do Sul, das quais, A. fraterculus e A. bistrigata foram predominantes. Em 2003, houve maior diversidade de espécies (11 das 13 espécies). Em Monte Alto, foram identificadas oito espécies, sendo A. fraterculus e A. sororcula predominantes. Os picos populacionais variaram entre as três principais espécies em Monte Alegre do Sul. Para A. fraterculus (Wied.), os picos ocorreram em março/abril e setembro/outubro; para A. bistrigata e A. obliqua, de março a maio. Em Monte Alto, os picos populacionais de A. fraterculus ocorreram em janeiro e outubro de 2004, sendo o acme populacional em outubro. Anastrepha sororcula apresentou um único pico em janeiro, mantendo-se com baixa população no restante do ano. A disponibilidade de goiaba foi o fator principal que influenciou o nível populacional das principais espécies de Anastrepha. Não ficou evidente a influência direta dos fatores climáticos sobre as populações das moscasdas- frutas em Monte Alegre do Sul. Em Monte Alto, os picos populacionais das principais espécies foram um pouco diferentes, ou seja, A. fraterculus teve dois picos (janeiro e outubro), um deles sem a presença de frutos no pomar (janeiro), e A. sororcula ocorreu somente em janeiro (sem frutos no pomar). Houve correlação positiva entre o alto índice de captura de A. sororcula com a precipitação pluvial do município. / Surveys of the Anastrepha species using torula-baited McPhail traps (food attractant) were carried out in Monte Alegre do Sul (January 2002 to December 2003) and Monte Alto (January to December 2004). A total of 30,516 specimens (15,770 females and 14,746 males) were captured in Monte Alegre do Sul, and 22,825 specimens (11,739 males and 11,086 females) in Monte Alto. Species identification was exclusively based on females. Thirteen species were recorded in Monte Alegre do Sul, from which A. fraterculus and A. bistrigata were predominant. The diversity of species was greater in 2003 than in 2004 (11 out of 13 species). Eight species were identified in Monte Alto, from which A. fraterculus and A. sororcula were predominant. The population peaks varied among the three major species in Monte Alegre do Sul. Anastrepha fraterculus peaked in March/April and September/October, and A. bistrigata and A. obliqua from March to May. In Monte Alto, population peaks of A. fraterculus occurred in January and October 2004, with a higher peak in October. Anastrepha sororcula showed a single peak in January, maintaining a low population level during the year. The availability of guava was the main factor that influenced the population level of the major Anastrepha species. No clear indication of the effect of climatic factors on the population density of fruit flies in Monte Alegre do Sul was obtained. The population peaks of the major species were slightly different in Monte Alto as compared to Monte Alegre do Sul, as A. fraterculus peaked twice (January and October), once in January when fruits were unavailable. The peak occurrence of Anastrepha sororcula (January) also coincided with the unavailability of fruits in the orchard. A positive correlation between the high rate of capture of A. sororcula with rainfall in the orchard in Monte Alegre was verified.

Ceratitis fasciventris, Ceratitis anonae and Ceratitis rosa are polyphagous agricultural pests originating from African continent. Their behaviour is heavily altered by pheromones. Insect chemical communication channels are species-specific, represents taxonomic and reproduction barriers. Taxonomy of this group (so-called Ceratitis FAR complex) is unclear. Therefore new chemical approaches along with genetic tests for identification of entities within the cryptic species FAR complex are being developed. To study multi-component mixtures of male volatiles originating from the three mentioned fruit fly species, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time- of-flight mass spectrometer (GC×GC-TOFMS) was used. A number of compounds were identified, out of which 23 were found to be distributed and shared among the studied species, 11 out of these were present in all three species. Analyses of male pheromone volatiles, using gas chromatography combined with electroantennographic detector (GC-EAD) revealed 4 common compounds with antennal activity shared among three studied species: methyl (E)-hex-3-enoate, 6-methylhept-5-en-2- one, linalool, and methyl (2E,6E)-farnesoate. The species-specific EAD active compounds in C. fasciventris were esters of isomers of hexenoic acid, whereas isomers of...