Friction stir welding (FSW) is an advantageous solid-state joining process, suitable for many materials in the energy, aerospace, naval and automotive industries. Like all other welding processes, friction stir welding requires non-destructive evaluation (NDE). The time and resources to preform NDE is expensive. To reduce these costs, nontraditional NDE methods are being developed for FSW. Spectral based defect recognition uses the forces during the welding process to validate weld quality. Although spectral NDE methods have shown promise as an alternative NDE processes, many research welding speeds do not correspond to manufacturing speeds, nor do they explain the relationship between the spectral data and the process. The purpose of this work is to explore the possibility of acquiring additional information about the defect. Namely the defect’s type, location, and magnitude. In this study, welds with “wormhole” defects were produced at 2000, 2500 and 3000 mmpm in 5754 aluminum. The welding process forces and torque were measured and analyzed spectrally. The welded plates were then imaged with x-ray photography, a validated NDE method. It was found that low frequencies (0 – 4 Hz) in the y & z force signals correlate with defect presence in high speed FSW. In addition, the strong correlation between the spectral data and the presence of a defect allowed for defect magnitude predictions. Linear fits were applied to the defect measurements and the spectral data. Large error inhibits the wide use of this prediction method.

A friction stir weld (FSW) is a solid state joining operation whose processing parameters are currently determined by lengthy trial and error methods. To implement FSWing rapidly in various applications will require an approach for predicting process parameters based on the physics of the process. Based on hot working conditions for metals, a kinematic model has been proposed for calculating the shear strain and shear strain rates during the FSW process, validation of the proposed model with direct measuring is difficult however. Since the shear strain and shear strain rates predicted for the FSW process, are similar to those predicted in metal cutting, validation of the FSW algorithms with microstructural studies of metal chips may be possible leading to the ability to predict FSW processing parameters.

The friction stir welding of steel has produced a hard zone in several different alloys. Despite its detrimental effects on weld toughness, the reasons behind neither its formation nor a method of reducing its size or effects have been explored. Recent advances in process control allow for direct heat input control, which combined with the use of backing plates of different thermal conductivity allows for an expansion of the process window. These control methods also affect the HAZ cooling rate by providing greater range (a 60% increase compared to a fixed backing plate) and control (five welds within 16 °C/s). This increased range produced microstructures consisting of various forms of ferrite at lower cooling rates and bainite at higher cooling rates. The hard zone was determined to be the result of the formation of the bainite at higher cooling rates and was avoided by keeping the cooling rate below 20 °C/s in HSLA-65.

Friction stir welding (FSWing) is a solid state, thermo-mechanical process that utilizes a non-consumable rotating weld tool to consolidate a weld joint. In the FSW process, the weld tool is responsible for generating both the heat required to soften the material and the forces necessary to deform and consolidate the former weld seam. Thus, weld tool geometry, material selection, and process parameters are important to the quality of the weld. To study the effects of the weld tool geometry on the resulting welds, a previous study was conducted using varying degree taper, microwave-sintered tungsten carbide (WC) weld tools to FSW Ti-6Al-4V. Fully consolidated welds were down selected for this study to evaluate the resulting mechanical properties and to document the microstructure. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to compare the parent material texture with that in the weld nugget. The purpose of this study is to quantify the temperatures obtained during FSWing by interpreting the resulting microstructure. This information is useful in process optimization as well as weld tool material selection.

La course à l'allègement des aéronefs constitue aujourd'hui l'un des enjeux principaux de l'industrie aéronautique. Le remplacement des rivets par des soudures FSW sur les voilures permettrait de gagner jusqu'à 20% de la masse totale de la voilure. Ce travail réalisé en collaboration avec Dassault-Aviation s'inscrit dans le cadre du projet ADSAM (Assemblage de Structures Aéronautiques Métalliques) visant à fabriquer un démonstrateur de caisson de voilure soudé par FSW. Cette étude traite du comportement mécanique en traction monotone quasi-statique et en fatigue oligocyclique (10⁴ à 10⁵ cycles) d'alliages d'aluminium (séries 2000 et 7000) soudés par FSW. L'objectif est d'étudier l'effet des hétérogénéités microstructurales induites par le soudage sur les hétérogénéités de comportement mécanique dans les joints soudés. La corrélation d'images numériques a été utilisée pour définir la réponse mécanique (σnominale – εvraie) dans chacune des zones constituant ces soudures. En complément, des essais sur des mini-éprouvettes prélevées dans l'épaisseur des joints ont permis d'établir le comportement local (σvraie – εvraie) dans chacune des zones du joint. Sous chargement de traction monotone, la rupture des soudures FSW a été observée dans la zone de localisation des déformations anélastiques située aux minima des profils de microdureté. En revanche, les fissures de fatigue ne démarrent pas nécessairement dans ces zones de localisation. Des analyses microscopiques des faciès de rupture ont permis d'identifier deux mécanismes principaux d'amorçage de fissure : (i) rupture ou (ii) décohésion de particules intermétalliques. D'autre part, les essais cycliques montrent une adaptation élastique des matériaux dans les différentes zones du joint (noyau, ZAT et ZATM) après stabilisation autour d'une déformation moyenne non nulle. En terme de durée de vie, les résultats d'essais sur éprouvettes entaillées traitées OAC (représentative de zones critiques sur structure) montrent que le soudage par FSW réduit jusqu'à 50% la tenue en fatigue de ces alliages. L'amorçage des fissures de fatigue est dû aux piqûres créées par le traitement d'OAC. Les résultats obtenus dans le cadre de ce travail ouvrent des perspectives intéressantes pour modéliser le comportement mécanique des joints soudés par FSW afin d'estimer leur durée de vie en fatigue oligocyclique. / Mass reduction of aeronautic structures is an important challenge for aeronautic industries. FSW is an efficient joining process to replace rivets : the mass reduction using this welding process could reach 20% for aircraft wings. This work carried out in collaboration with Dassault-Aviation was done in the framework of ADSAM project. The FSW process significantly modifies the microstructure and the local material properties, the overall mechanical response of the joint is largely governed by the response of the different zones of FSW joint. In the present study, the global and local mechanical responses under monotonic quasi-static tension and cyclic tension-tension (R=0.1) in low cycle fatigue regime (10⁴ to 10⁵ cycles) were carried out on FSW joints made of aluminum alloys (2000 and 7000 series). Full field strain measurements were carried out on FSW welded specimens using digital image correlation techniques assuming an iso-stress configuration (σlocal = σnominal ). Additionally tension tests parallel to the welding direction have been performed on micro specimens machined in each representative zone of FSW joints. These tests allow us to determine the local mechanical response (σlocal − εlocal) of the joint. Local mechanical properties were determined for each representative weld zone (nugget, TMAZ and HAZ). The full field anelastic strain localization scenario prior to fracture shows a good correlation with the microhardness profile along the FSW joints. Under monotonic loading, fracture was observed at the strain localization zones unlike under cyclic loading. In fatigue, the fracture zones are very dispersed for each weld configuration. SEM observations led to the identification of two crack initiation mechanisms:(i) fracture of intermetallic particles or (ii) decohesion between intermetallic particles and the matrix. Digital image correlation under cyclic loading shows an elastic shakedown of the studied materials in each zone of the joint around a non null mean strain. In terms of number of cycles to failure, fatigue test results on ACO treated notched specimens (representative of structure critical locations) show that the FSW process reduce up to 50% the faigue life of the base materials. The crack initiation was associated to ACO pits. The results of this study open interesting prospects for modelling the mechanical behavior of FSW joints and to assess their fatigue life.

Os aços inoxidáveis duplex são largamente utilizados na fabricação de equipamentos para a indústria de óleo e gás, utilizados tanto no ambiente onshore quanto offshore. Sua grande limitação é que, com o aumento de temperatura, ocorre precipitação de fases indesejáveis, que reduzem drasticamente a resistência à corrosão e as propriedades mecânicas desses materiais. Considerando o efeito deletério da soldagem a fusão nos aços inoxidáveis duplex, a soldagem por atrito com pino não-consumível (FSW) é amplamente considerada como alternativa aos processos convencionais. Como no FSW a união dos materiais ocorre no estado sólido, muitos dos problemas de soldabilidade associados às técnicas tradicionais de soldagem por fusão são evitados. Neste trabalho, amostras retiradas da zona misturada (ZM), das zonas afetadas pelo calor (ZTA e ZTMA) e do metal de base (MB) de chapas de aço inoxidável lean duplex LDX 2404&reg (UNS S82441) soldadas por atrito com pino não-consumível foram caracterizadas microestruturalmente e tiveram sua resistência à corrosão avaliada por meio de ensaios eletroquímicos. Os resultados obtidos nos ensaios eletroquímicos indicaram que as zonas afetadas pelo calor e a ZM se mantiveram tão resistentes à corrosão localizada quanto o MB. Permitiram concluir também que a excelente resistência à corrosão da liga está associada ao teor elevado de N. / Duplex stainless steels have been widely used in the manufacture of equipments and piping for oil & gas industry, in onshore and offshore service. However, whenever they are exposed to high temperatures the precipitation of deleterious phases might occur. The precipitates drastically reduce the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of these materials. The friction stir welding (FSW) process has been considered as an alternative to replace the conventional fusion welding processes in duplex stainless steels. FSW is a solid-state welding process avoiding many of the problems associated to conventional fusion techniques. In this study, specimens of the various zones affected and nearby the FSW, specifically the nugget or stir zone (SZ), the heat affected zones (HAZ/TMAZ) and the base metal (BM) of welded lean duplex UNS S82441 were characterized microstructurally and had their corrosion resistance evaluated by electrochemical tests. The results indicated that the HAZ/TMAZ and SZ regions presented similar localized corrosion resistance to that of the BM showing that it is a potential technique for replacing the conventional processes with advantageous corrosion resistance properties. They also concluded that the excellent corrosion resistance of the alloy is associated with the high N content.

Os aços inoxidáveis duplex são largamente utilizados na fabricação de equipamentos para a indústria de óleo e gás, utilizados tanto no ambiente onshore quanto offshore. Sua grande limitação é que, com o aumento de temperatura, ocorre precipitação de fases indesejáveis, que reduzem drasticamente a resistência à corrosão e as propriedades mecânicas desses materiais. Considerando o efeito deletério da soldagem a fusão nos aços inoxidáveis duplex, a soldagem por atrito com pino não-consumível (FSW) é amplamente considerada como alternativa aos processos convencionais. Como no FSW a união dos materiais ocorre no estado sólido, muitos dos problemas de soldabilidade associados às técnicas tradicionais de soldagem por fusão são evitados. Neste trabalho, amostras retiradas da zona misturada (ZM), das zonas afetadas pelo calor (ZTA e ZTMA) e do metal de base (MB) de chapas de aço inoxidável lean duplex LDX 2404&reg (UNS S82441) soldadas por atrito com pino não-consumível foram caracterizadas microestruturalmente e tiveram sua resistência à corrosão avaliada por meio de ensaios eletroquímicos. Os resultados obtidos nos ensaios eletroquímicos indicaram que as zonas afetadas pelo calor e a ZM se mantiveram tão resistentes à corrosão localizada quanto o MB. Permitiram concluir também que a excelente resistência à corrosão da liga está associada ao teor elevado de N. / Duplex stainless steels have been widely used in the manufacture of equipments and piping for oil & gas industry, in onshore and offshore service. However, whenever they are exposed to high temperatures the precipitation of deleterious phases might occur. The precipitates drastically reduce the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of these materials. The friction stir welding (FSW) process has been considered as an alternative to replace the conventional fusion welding processes in duplex stainless steels. FSW is a solid-state welding process avoiding many of the problems associated to conventional fusion techniques. In this study, specimens of the various zones affected and nearby the FSW, specifically the nugget or stir zone (SZ), the heat affected zones (HAZ/TMAZ) and the base metal (BM) of welded lean duplex UNS S82441 were characterized microstructurally and had their corrosion resistance evaluated by electrochemical tests. The results indicated that the HAZ/TMAZ and SZ regions presented similar localized corrosion resistance to that of the BM showing that it is a potential technique for replacing the conventional processes with advantageous corrosion resistance properties. They also concluded that the excellent corrosion resistance of the alloy is associated with the high N content.

The aim of this thesis was to investigate if the robotized welding method FSW (Friction Stir Welding) could be applied for joining a rotating structure in an aero engine at Volvo Aero Corporation. FSW is expected to introduce less defects than today’s welding methods and could therefore be suitable for critical aero components. The material is the nickel based alloy Inconel 718, however a material experimentation is outside the scope of this report.The main goal of this study is to verify if the ESAB ROSIO robot based FSW-system has a suitable work space to be able to weld the rotating structure, and if the welding tool has accessibility to the joints. The FSW-process needs a rigid fixture, and a number of fix-ture concepts are presented based on a proposed weld sequence. A final fixture design is proposed, which requires a new design of the structure.The accessibility studies were performed in the robot simulations software Robot Stu-dio. This showed that the robot was unable to weld the proposed model in all areas in the original design. If the robot and the rotating structure can be redesigned the access will be achieved as shown in Robot Studio simulations.In order to be implemented in real production a number of further actions need to be taken and the result of this study can be a basis for these.

La problématique traitée dans cette thèse concerne la commande de robots manipulateurs industriels légèrement flexibles utilisés pour la robotisation de procédés d'usinage et de soudage FSW. Le premier objectif est la modélisation des robots et des procédés. Les modèles développés concernant la cinématique et la dynamique de robots 6 axes à architecture série et à flexibilité localisées aux articulations. Les paramètres du modèle dynamique et les raideurs sont identifiés avec la méthode à erreur de sortie qui donne une bonne précision d'estimation. La norme relative du résidu du modèle après identification est de 3,2%. Le deuxième objectif est l'amélioration des performances de la robotisation des procédés. Un simulateur a été développé qui intègre le modèle dynamique du robot flexible, les modèles de procédés et le modèle du contrôleur de robot y compris les lois de commande en temps réel des axes et le générateur de trajectoires. Un observateur non-linéaire à grands gains est proposé pour estimer l'état complet du robot flexible ainsi que les efforts d'interaction. Ensuite, un compensateur basé sur l'observateur est proposé pour corriger les erreurs de positionnement en temps réel. La validation expérimentale sur un robot industriel Kuka, montre une très bonne estimation de l'état complet par l'observateur. Un soudage FSW précis grâce à la compensation en temps réel de la flexibilité du manipulateur a pu être effectué avec succès. / The problem addressed in this thesis concerns the control of industrial robot manipulators which are slightly flexible and used for machining and FSW processes. The first objective is to model the robots and processes. The developed models concern the kinematics and dynamics models of 6-axis robots with serial architecture and flexibility localized at joints. The dynamic model parameters and a part of the joint stiffnesses are identified with the approach of output error which gives a satisfy estimation accuracy. According to identification, the RMS residue of the model is 3.2%. The second objective is to improve the robotization performance of manufacturing processes. A simulator was developed that contains the dynamic model of the flexible robot, the process models and the model of the robot controller including control laws in real time of axes and the trajectory generator. A nonlinear high-gains observer is proposed to estimate the complete states of robot system as well as the operation wrenches. Then the observer-based compensator is proposed to correct the positioning errors in real time. The experimental validation of industrial robots shows a satisfactory estimating performance of the observer. A precise FSW welding owing to the real-time compensation for the flexibility of manipulator has been done successfully.

Depuis l'invention du soudage par frottement malaxage (FSW) en 1991 par The Welding Institute (TWI), l'industrie aéronautique envisage de remplacer l'assemblage par rivetage des tôles par ce procédé. L'objectif est d'alléger les structures, plus particulièrement les panneaux des structures d'aéronefs qui sont souvent raidis avec des lisses et des profilés assemblés à la peau extérieure. La qualification du procédé FSW dans l'aéronautique requiert de produire des joints de très haute qualité avec une longue durée de vie des outils. Ceci nécessite un réglage fin des paramètres procédé tels que la géométrie de l'outil (dimensions de l'épaulement et du pion, filetage) et les vitesses d'avance et de rotation. Le but de ce travail est d'accompagner la conception du procédé par la simulation numérique. Il comporte trois parties: (1) le développement de la formulation arbitrairement lagrangienne ou eulérienne (ALE) dans la version parallèle du logiciel Forge® pour l'adapter au FSW, (2) la modélisation du procédé FSW et (3) la calibration du modèle EF et la validation des résultats numériques suite à la réalisation d'essais FSW en configuration par recouvrement.Ce travail est basé sur la formulation ALE parallèle développée dans Forge® afin de modéliser les différents défauts caractéristiques du FSW (bavures et trous). L'algorithme de transport des champs continus, indispensable au caractère eulérien, est affiné afin de considérer les particularités de l'écoulement du procédé (nœud du plan d'entrée, en contact avec l'outil ou dans les bavures et sortant du domaine d'étude). Un nouveau schéma d'intégration temporelle basée sur les coordonnées cylindriques plus adapté à ce procédé fortement rotationnel est introduit. Enfin, un filetage sur l'outil est modélisé par l'introduction d'une nouvelle loi de frottement à l'interface outil / matière.Cette formulation ALE générale et parallèle a montré sa robustesse pour modéliser le procédé FSW. Les résultats thermomécaniques sont en accord avec de précédents résultats validés par l'expérience. De plus l'outil numérique obtenu a montré ses capacités pour la modélisation des bavures ou des pertes de contact derrière le pion.Finalement la configuration de soudage par recouvrement industrielle a été étudiée. Pour cela des essais expérimentaux ont été réalisés pour divers paramètres du procédé et divers types de joints de recouvrement. Puis les mesures de forces et du couple dans l'outil et de la température dans l'outil et la tôle ont permis de calibrer les paramètres du modèle (frottement, loi de comportement, coefficients thermiques) et de valider les résultats EF. / Since the invention of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) in 1991 by The Welding Institute (TWI), aeronautics industry has been investigating the possibility to use this process instead of riveting with the objective to lighten its structures and more particularly the aircrafts structure panels. Aircraft panels are often straightened with stringers and profiles which are joined to the outer skin. The qualification of FSW process in aeronautics requires producing very high quality joints with the longevity of tools, which requires fine tuning of process parameters such as the geometry of the welding tool (shoulder and pin dimensions, threads on pin and shoulder) and the advancing and rotating speeds. The aim of this work is to support the design of the process by numerical simulation. It has three parts: (1) developing an efficient and accurate Arbitrary Lagrangian or Eulerian (ALE) formulation within the parallel version of Forge® software, (2) modelling the FSW process and (3) calibrating the F.E. model and validating simulation results thanks to FSW experiments on lap joints.This work is based on the parallel ALE formulation developed in Forge® to model the different possible defects taking place in FSW (flashes and worm holes). The transport algorithm of continuous fields, required by the Eulerian frame, is enhanced to take the special characteristics of the FSW's flow into account (nodes located in input plan or flashes or in contact with the tool). A new time integration scheme based on cylindrical coordinates, which are best suited for this process, is introduced. Finally, the pin and shoulder threads are modelled by introducing a new friction law at the tool / material interface.This general and parallel ALE formulation is robust enough to model the FSW process. Thermomechanical results obtained are in agreement with previous results validated by experiences. And the numerical tool demonstrated its ability to model flashes formation and losses of contact behind the pin. Finally industrial welding lap joints configuration was studied. Experimental tests were conducted with several process parameters and type of lap joint. And measure of torque and forces in tool, and temperature in tool and sheet metal allowed to calibrate model parameters (friction, behavior law, thermal coefficients) and to validate FE results.