Purpose. Road transportation is one of the major sources of GHG emissions today. Technological improvements in fuel consumption, as well as the electrification of vehicles can reduce emissions from road transportation. This study aims to investigate the optimal time for vehicle replacement in Sweden for an ICEV to minimise GHG emissions. While many LCA studies compare the total emissions from ICEVs with BEVs and conduct a break-even analysis, little focus is dedicated to the implications of the results. Previous studies did not estimate the time of vehicle replacement at which GHG emissions are minimised. To represent the Swedish vehicle fleet, the optimal replacement time is estimated for a Volvo V70 (petrol, 2011 model), when replacing it with a Volvo V60 (petrol, 2020 model) (Scenario 1), correspondingly when replacing with a Polestar 2 (battery-electric, 2020 model) (Scenario 2). Methods. For the estimation of lifetime emissions resulting from the three vehicle models, a Life Cycle Analysis was conducted. The functional unit investigated was 200.000 km driven with the V70, the V60 and Polestar 2, assuming that the vehicles were operated in Sweden. The emission values are then used to model the vehicle replacement in each scenario and the results are analysed. Findings. The LCA study showed that the V70 emits 64,08 tCO2eq. over its total lifespan, the V60 46,48 tCO2eq., and the Polestar 2 29,05 tCO2eq. The study showed that there is not one optimal replacement time, but the optimal time for vehicle replacement, from a carbon emission point of view, is inherently linked to the total driven mileage and number of cars owned. However, the trend shows that the time of replacement in Scenario 1 should be close to the End-of-Life of the V70. For Scenario 2 it is beneficial to replace the V70 immediately.

To meet the national and international climate goals every potential GHG mitigating effort needs to be addressed. The aim of this thesis is to investigate if the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), Ekebyhov, can reduce its GHG emissions by making changes inthe treatmentprocess. The main GHGs emitted from WWT areN2O, CH4and CO2. To begin with, Ekebyhov’scurrent carbon footprintwas calculated in a base line scenario, using a calculation tool (ECT). The results showed that the total footprintamounted to 522 tons CO2eqper year, with the majority of the emissions (83 %) from the activated sludge process. Five GHG-mitigating measures were identified and potential GHG emission reduction (PGER) was calculated from 1) optimized WWT, 2) urea treated sludge, 3) change of chemicals, 4) green transports and 5) added anaerobic digestion (AD) process. The largest PGER came from added AD, followed by optimized WWT. Finally, the PGER for all measures was calculated and resulted in net negative emissions of -95 tons CO2eq per year. The thesis shows that it is possible to reduce the carbon footprint of Ekebyhov WWTP, even to a net negative result. It is, however important to address other impact categories in a full LCA to be able to make fully informed decisions.

Tesis por compendio / [EN] First chapter uses California's drought to identify the economic threats of water scarcity on food, energy and environmental systems as a way to introduce the multiple interactions between these resources. The second part of this first chapter introduces the focus of the dissertation, the water-energy nexus, presents a literature review identifying gaps, states the main and specific research objectives and the research questions, explains the research approach, and describes the organization of the dissertation. Second chapter develops an end-use model for water use and related energy and carbon footprint using probability distributions for parameters affecting water consumption in 10 local water utilities in California. Statewide single-family water-related CO2 emissions are 2% of overall per capita emissions, and locally variability is presented. The impact of several common conservation strategies on household water and energy use are assessed simulating different scenarios. Based on the this model, Chapter 3 introduces a probabilistic two-stage optimization model considering technical and behavioral decision variables to obtain the most eco-nomical strategies to minimize household water and water-related energy bills and costs given both water and energy price shocks. Results can provide an upper bound of household savings for customers with well-behaved preferences, and show greater adoption rates to reduce energy intensive appliances when energy is accounted, result-ing in an overall 24% reduction in indoor water use that represents a 30 percent reduc-tion in water-related energy use and a 53 percent reduction in household water-related CO2 emissions. To complete the urban water cycle, Chapter 4 develops first an hourly model of urban water uses by customer category including water-related energy consumption and next I calibrate a model of the energy used in water supply, treatment, pumping and wastewater treatment by the utility, using real data from East Bay Municipal Utility District in California. Hourly costs of energy for the water and energy utilities are assessed and GHG emissions for the entire water cycle estimated. Results show that water end-uses account for almost 95% of all water-related energy use, but the 5% managed by the utility is still worth over $12 million annually. Several simulations analyze the potential benefits for water demand management actions. The total carbon footprint per capita of the urban water cycle is 405 kg CO2/year representing 4.4% of the total GHG emissions per capita in California. Accounting for the results obtained in Chapters 2 to 4, Chapter 5 describes a simple but powerful decision support system for water management that includes water-related energy use and GHG emissions not solely from the water operations, but also from final water end uses, including demands from cities, agriculture, environment and the energy sector. The DSS combines a surface water management model with a simple groundwater model, accounting for their interrelationships, and also includes explicitly economic data to optimize water use across sectors during shortages and calculate return flows from different uses. Capabilities of the DSS are demonstrated on a case study over California's intertied water system over the historic period and some simulations are run to highlight water and energy tradeoffs. Results show that urban end uses account for most GHG emissions of the entire water cycle, but large water conveyance produces significant peaks over the summer season. The carbon footprint of the entire water cycle during this period, according to the model, was 21.43 millions of tons of CO2/year, what was roughly 5% of California's total GHG emissions. The last two chapters discus and summarize the thematic and methodological contribu-tions and looks for further research presenting and discussing the research gaps and research questions that this dissertation left open. / [ES] El primer capítulo utiliza la sequía de California para identificar las amenazas económicas de la escasez de agua en los sistemas de producción de alimentos, energético y medioambiental para presentar las múltiples interacciones entre estos recursos. La segunda parte del primer capítulo centra el objetivo de la tesis, la relación entre el agua y la energía, presenta la revisión de la literatura identificando los vacíos, describe los objetivos y las cuestiones que busca responder esta investigación, explica la metodología seguida, y describe la organización de la tesis. En el segundo capítulo se desarrolla un modelo de usos finales de agua, contando con la energía y las emisiones de GEI asociados utilizando distribuciones de probabilidad para los parámetros que afectan al uso del agua en 10 ciudades en California. Como resultados principales se obtiene que las emisiones de GEI asociadas al consumo residencial de agua representan el 2% del total de emisiones per cápita, y se presenta la variabilidad debida a las condiciones locales. Los impactos de algunas prácticas comunes de ahorro de agua y energía son calculadas simulando diferente escenarios. Basado en ese modelo, el Capítulo 3 se presenta un modelo de optimización probabilísticos en dos periodos considerando variables de decisión de modificaciones técnicas y de comportamiento en relación al consumo de agua para obtener las estrategias más económicas para minimizar las facturas de agua y energía. Los resultados proporcionan un límite superior para el ahorro doméstico, y muestran mayores tasas de adopción para reducir usos de agua que son más intensivos en consumo energético cuando la energía se incluye, resultando en una reducción del 24% de uso de agua adentro de las casas, que representa un 30% en reducción de energía y un 53% de emisiones de GEI, ambos relacionados con el consumo de agua. Para completar el ciclo urbano del agua, el Capítulo 4 desarrolla primero un modelo horario de usos de agua incluyendo la energía asociada y después se calibra un modelo de agua y energía en el abastecimiento, tratamiento y bombeo de agua, y el tratamiento de agua residual, utilizando datos reales de East Bay Municipal Utility District en California. Los costes horarios de energía para las compañías de agua y energía, así como las emisiones de GEI son estimadas. Los resultados muestran que los usos finales son responsables del 95% de la energía relacionada con el uso del agua, pero que el 5% restante tiene un coste de 12 millones de dólares anualmente. Teniendo en cuenta los resultados obtenidos en los capítulos 2, 3 y 4, el Capítulo 5 describe un sistema de apoyo de decisión (SSD) para gestión de recursos hídricos incluyente energía y emisiones de GEI no sólo de la gestión del agua, sino también de usos finales del agua, incluyendo demandas urbanas, agrícolas, ambientales y del sector energético. El SSD combina un modelo de agua superficial con uno de agua subterráneo, incluyendo sus interacciones, y también incluye explícitamente datos económicos para optimizar el uso del agua durante periodos de sequía. Las posibilidades del SSD son demostradas en un caso de estudio aplicado a un modelo simplificado del sistema de recursos hídricos de California. Los resultados muestran que los usos finales del agua en zonas urbanas son responsables de la mayoría de las emisiones de GEH, pero que las grandes infrastructures de transporte de agua producen importante picos en verano. De acuerdo con el modelo, la huella de carbón del ciclo del agua en California es de 21.43 millones de toneladas de CO2/año, lo que significa aproximadamente el 5% del total de emisiones de GEI del estado. Los últimos dos capítulos resumen y discuten las contribuciones temáticas y metodológicas de esta tesis, presentando nuevas líneas de investigación que se derivan de este trabajo. / [CA] El primer capítol utilitza la sequera de Califòrnia per a identificar les amenaces econòmiques de l'escassesa d'aigua en els sistemes de producció d'aliments, energètic i mediambiental per a presentar les múltiples interaccions entre estos recursos. La segona part del primer capítol centra l'objectiu de la tesi, la relació entre l'aigua i l'energia, presenta la revisió de la literatura identificant els buits, descriu els objectius i les qüestions que busca respondre esta recerca, explica la metodologia seguida, i descriu la organització de la tesi. Al segon capítol es desenvolupa un model d'usos finals d'aigua, comptant amb l'energia i les emissions de GEH associats utilitzant distribucions de probabilitat per als paràmetres que afecten a l'ús de l'aigua en 10 ciutats en Califòrnia. Com a resultats principals s'obté que les emissions de GEH associades al consum residencial d'aigua representen el 2% del total d'emissions per càpita, i es presenta la variabilitat deguda a les condicions locals. Els impactes d'algunes pràctiques comunes d'estalvi d'aigua i energia són calculades simulant diferent escenaris. Basat en eixe model, al Capítol 3 es presenta un model d'optimització probabilístics en dos períodes considerant variables de decisió de modificacions tècniques i de comportament en relació al consum d'aigua per a obtindre les estratègies més econòmiques per a minimitzar les factures d'aigua i energia. Els resultats proporcionen un límit superior per a l'estalvi domèstic, i mostren majors taxes d'adopció per a reduir usos d'aigua que són més intensius en consum energètic quan l'energia es incluïda, resultant en una reducció del 24% d'ús d'aigua a dins de les cases, que representa un 30% en reducció d'energia i un 53% d'emissions de GEH, ambdós relacionats amb el consum d'aigua. Per a completar el cicle urbà de l'aigua, el Capítol 4 desenvolupa primer un model horari d'usos d'aigua incloent l'energia associada i després es calibra un model d'aigua i energia en l'abastiment, tractament i bombeig d'aigua i al tractament d'aigua residual, utilitzant dades reals de East Bay Municipal Utility District en Califòrnia. Els costs horaris d'energia per a les companyies d'aigua i energia, així com les emissions de GEH són estimades. Els resultats mostren que els usos finals són responsables del 95% de l'energia relacionada amb l'ús de l'aigua, però que el 5% restant té un cost de 12 milions de dolars anualment. Algunes simulacions analitzen els beneficis econòmics potencials de mesures de gestió de demanda d'aigua. La petjada de carbó total del cicle urbà de l'aigua s'estima en 405 kg CO2/any representant el 4.4% de les emissions per càpita en Califòrnia. Tenint en compte els resultats obtesos en els capítols 2, 3 i 4, el Capítol 5 descriu un sistema de suport de decisió (SSD) per a gestió de recursos hídrics incloent energia i emissions de GEH no sols de la gestió de l'aigua, sinó també del úsos finals de l'aigua, incloent demandes urbanes, agrícoles, ambientals i del sector energètic. El SSD combina un model d'aigua superficial amb un d'aigua subterrànea, incloent les seues interrelacions, i també inclou explícitament dades econòmiques per a optimitzar l'ús de l'aigua durant períodes de sequera. Les possibilitats del SSD són demostrades en un cas d'estudi aplicat a un model simplificat del sistema de recursos hídrics de Califòrnia. Els resultats mostren que els usos finals de l'aigua en zones urbanes són responsables de la majoria de les emissions de GEH, però que les grans infrastructures de transport d'aigua produïxen important pics a l'estiu. D'acord amb el model, la petjada de carbó del cicle de l'aigua a Califòrnia és de 21.43 milions de tones de CO2/any, el que significa aproximadament el 5% del total d'emissions de GEH a l'estat. Els últims dos capítols resumeixen i discuteixen les contribucions temàtiques i metodològiques d'esta tesi, presentan / Escrivà Bou, À. (2015). The Water-Energy Nexus: a bottom-up approach for basin-wide management [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/59451 / TESIS / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales / Compendio

The passenger transportation sector is notoriously difficult to decarbonize. In this thesis, two distinct and novel methodologies to estimate the environmental impact of alternative and conventional transportation technologies are developed. In Chapter 2, a provincial fleet policy-driven linear programming model is developed to minimize the cost of three passenger vehicle electrification policies in Ontario under a 30% GHG reduction target by 2030. Provincial life-cycle emissions and total-cost-of-ownership associated with policy allocation is estimated. The results highlight that electrification of on-road passenger transportation will not be sufficient to meet the 30% reduction target despite Ontario's low-carbon electricity grid. Instead, reductions of between 24% to 26% are forecasted at an annual cost (for ten years) of between CAD 0.29 to 0.3 billion annually indicating that additional policies are necessary to realize a 30% reduction target. In Chapter 3, a trip-level vehicle framework is developed to determine under what operating conditions transit buses and passenger cars will be environmentally beneficial across the dimensions of technology, service mode, and power source pathway. The well-to-wheel energy consumption and GHG emissions are simulated for over 450 operating scenarios. Emissions are then normalized through passenger-trip emission thresholds to facilitate equivalent comparison across all dimensions. The results indicate that the most beneficial solution are fuel-cell electric car-share, battery electric car-share, and battery electric bus all powered by low-carbon intensity power sources at average occupancy (7.9-19.7 gCO2e passenger-service-mode-trip-km-travelled-1). Furthermore, transit bus technologies have the potential to reduce up to 2.3 times more GHG per passenger-trip than comparable ride-share passenger cars at average occupancies. The results of Chapter 2 and 3 highlight that technology alone may not be sufficient to achieve significant GHG reductions; policy which leverage local operating data and target GHG reduction associated with passenger-trips are critical to informing under what conditions a mobility solution is environmentally beneficial. / Thesis / Master of Civil Engineering (MCE) / There is a dire need to evaluate the effectiveness of transportation GHG mitigation policies as alternative mobility solutions are being adopted and the pressure to respond to climate change intensifies. This work evaluates the effectiveness of policy optimization and vehicle-level simulation techniques to inform GHG mitigation decision-making. A two-step approach is adopted herein. At the strategic level, a cost optimization model for passenger vehicle electrification policies in Ontario is calibrated to identify the optimal allocation of provincial policy to achieve a 30% GHG reduction by 2030. Next, a micro level focuses on the energy consumption of eight vehicle technologies over 450 operational scenarios is simulated and trip-level passenger emissions are estimated to reveal the environmentally beneficial mobility option, corresponding passenger thresholds, and extent of variability associated with local operating conditions. Overall, optimization and trip-level vehicle simulation can be used to demystify optimal decision-making related to mobility solutions.

There are problems connected to the non-financial reports (NFRs) prepared by companies. The purpose of this study is to compare over a ten year period, the NFRs of Large Cap companies on the Swedish Stock Market, from a “Climate Action” and emissions perspective, to determine if the direct comparability of NFRs has increased within companies, if the direct comparability of NFRs between companies has increased and if regulations launched during the past decade have increased the direct comparability of NFRs. The non-financial reports (NFRs) of twenty four different Large Cap companies on the Swedish Stock Market were studied from 2010 to 2019 using a semi-inductive approach. A Research model and an Analysis model, the latter containing four components, frameworks, indicators, units of measurement and physical quantities, was developed in this study and its components used for analytical purposes. The results of the study show that only four enterprises’ NFRs, out of a total of twenty-four, could be compared internally for climate change issues over the entire decade. Furthermore, none of the companies’ NFRs could be directly compared between companies within this timeframe. The study has shown that direct comparability of NFRs, both within and between companies over time, requires that a unit of measurement and a physical quantity are used consistently by the companies. This study indicates that neither direct internal comparability of NFRs nor direct comparability between companies’ NFRs, have increased within and between companies over a decade. Despite the introduction of regulations there has not been a uniformity of procedures of the companies’ combined use of units of measurement and physical quantities which allows for individual interpretation of their contents. A suggested future research project is to lay the foundation for a combined financial and non-financial report where issues of risk and responsibility are tackled.

<p>This research explores the impact of road infrastructure on deforestation, the role of forest governance and a carbon tax/credit mechanism in mitigating the effect on land use change and subsequent GHG emissions, with application to the states of Pará and Mato Grosso in Brazil. Few studies have addressed how policies to protect forested land affect the rate of deforestation associated with road and infrastructure improvement. This research makes three main contributions to the literature of roads and deforestation: 1) the concept of cost of access to the “closest” market in terms of time (expressed in person hours per ten ton load) is introduced to reflect variations in the road network infrastructure; 2) development of empirical evidence of the role of forest governance in diminishing the rate of deforestation linked to roads, using data from Brazil; and 3) and assessment of the efficacy of a carbon tax/credit scheme for mitigating the impact of infrastructure investment on land use and resultant changes in GHG emissions. Access cost ranged between 0.01 and 3084 person hours per load, however 80 percent of the pixels measured less than 784 person hours across the three years analyzed (2003, 2013, and 2018). This measure facilitated a contrast in spatial accessibility due to road infrastructure across pixels within the same year and across years on a same pixel. The use of a fractional logit model allowed the incorporation of proportions of different land uses within a same pixel at the same resolution of other <a></a>variables not available at the same fine scale. Strong forest governance reduced up to 25% the elasticities on forest lands with respect to access cost; in other words, the impact of roads on deforestation is reduced by one fourth when forest governance is strengthened. These larger impacts occur at the frontier where most of the efforts need to be addressed. Finally, provided a shock in road infrastructure, a carbon tax/credit level of $82/tCO2e permitted to abate an additional amount of GHG emissions estimated in 244 million tons of CO2e released due to changes in carbon stocks and flow emissions from agricultural activities induced from changes in road infrastructure. More importantly, this research provided insights of a proportion of GHG emissions that could be abated at different levels of a carbon tax/credit.</p>

The carbon footprint of the power generation is studied for more than 30 years now. In order to curb GHG emissions, politics, industrials and consumers tend to take action to reduce the carbon intensity of the electricity mix, spread electrification and enhance usage efficiency. However, little is known on the growing power network which connect production and consumption. This study assesses the GHG emission of typical distribution infrastructure projects, in Sweden, with the aim to express recommendation to further improvements. The life cycle assessment (LCA) follows the Greenhouse gas protocol, gathering every related emission from the material mining till the endof-life. The computation is carried out thanks to the project data, environmental product declaration and environmental agencies carbon emission factor. In addition, 50% load hypothesis have been assumed to model the electric usage of transformer and cable. As a result, the installation of 1km of 240mm2 aluminium cable emits 35.67t CO2eq throughout its 30 years of lifespan, involving material, vehicle, and usage related emissions. The GHG sources are almost evenly split between the losses in the cable and the cable material. This total rises up to 41.81 t CO2eq, when excavation is required. The same life cycle assessment is carried out for a 30 to 130 kV substation with a transformer capacity of 63MVA. 1287 t CO2eq are accounted with the highest share coming from SF6 leakage, with 31% of the emissions. To go further, a wide range of options is studied to reduce the projects’ climate impact: going from more sustainable materials, recycling, equipment lifespan extension, more efficient devices, and alternative fuels. Climate-economic studies applied to the previous project measures the costs and benefits for each solution. It demonstrates the relevance of circular economy, even in a business perspective. The transformer refurbishment must be prioritized as it saves the most emissions and costs. The aluminium recycling must be aimed for, because of its major GHG emission reduction for (aluminium) cable project. The substation design must ban as much as possible the SF6 usage and reduce the ground surface on grassland or forest. Lastly, electrification of the fleet and green concrete help to save extra tonnes of CO2eq for reasonable prices. / Koldioxidavtrycket från elproduktion har studerats i mer än 30 år. För att minska utsläppen av växthusgaser tenderar politiker, industrier och konsumenter att vidta åtgärder för att minska koldioxidin tensiteten i elmixern, sprida elektrifieringen och öka effektiviteten i användningen. Det finns dock få uppgifter om det växande elnätet som förbinder produktion och konsumtion. I den här studien bedöms växthusgasutsläppen från typiska distributionsinfrast rukturprojekt i Sverige i syfte att ge rekommendationer om ytterligare förbättringar. Livscykelanalysen följer växthusgasprotokollet och samlar in alla relaterade utsläpp från materialbrytning till slutet av livscykeln. Beräkningen görs med hjälp av projek tdata, miljövarudeklarationer och miljöorganens koldioxidutsläppsfaktorer. Dessutom har man utgått från en 50 transformatorns och kabelns elförbrukning.procentig belastning för att modellera Resultatet är att installationen av 1 km 240 mm2 aluminiumkabel koldioxidekvivalenter under sin 30släpper ut 35,67 ton åriga livslängd, vilket innefattar material, fordonsoch användningsrelaterade utsläpp. Växthusgaskällorna är nästan jämnt fördelade mellan förlusterna i kabeln och kabelmaterialet. Denna summa stig er till 41,81 t CO2eq när det krävs grävning. Samma livscykelanalys utförs för en 30130 kVstation med en transformatorkapacitet på 63 MVA. 1287 ton koldioxidekvivalenter redovisas, där den största andelen kommer från SF6 utsläppen. Fläckage, med 31 % av ör att gå vidare studeras ett stort antal alternativ för att minska projektens klimatpåverkan: mer hållbara material, återvinning, förlängning av utrustningens livslängd, effektivare apparater och alternativa bränslen. Klimatekonomiska studier som tillämpa ts på det tidigare projektet mäter kostnaderna och fördelarna för varje lösning. Det visar på relevansen av cirkulär ekonomi, även ur ett affärsperspektiv. Renoveringen av transformatorn måste prioriteras eftersom den sparar mest utsläpp och kostnader. Åt ervinning av aluminium måste eftersträvas, eftersom det ger en stor minskning av växthusgasutsläppen för (aluminium)kabelprojektet. Utformningen av transformatorstationer måste i så stor utsträckning som möjligt förbjuda SF6användning och minska markytan på gräsmark eller skog. Slutligen bidrar elektrifiering av fordonsflottan och grön betong till att spara ytterligare ton koldioxidekvivalenter till rimliga priser.

Transitioning from the conventional steel process to a direct hydrogen reduction process in the steel industry is a significant step towards reducing carbon dioxide emissions and achieving greater sustainability. The process involves using hydrogen gas as a reducing agent instead of carbon to remove oxygen from the iron ore. This study aimed to investigate the future capacity of the hydrogen-based steelmaking process in Sweden by 2050 while also examining the pathway for transitioning to hydrogen-based steelmaking in other European countries in comparison to the Swedish case. To achieve this goal, a systematic literature search was conducted using Scopus and Web of Science databases to identify relevant case studies and reviews that focused on green steel solutions and that discussed associated challenges and barriers. A aconsupteal model was designed by simplifying the process into three production steps, hydrogen storage, and hot briquette iron storage to calculate the energy consumption and material requirements for the hydrogen direct process in Sweden. Additionally, a survey providing insights regarding current practices and perspectives was administered to seven companies in Sweden and two in other European countries, namely the Netherlands and Germany. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of the literature review on life cycle assessment was conducted to compare the carbon emissions associated with two different steel production processes: the conventional process using the basic oxygen furnace and the emerging hydrogen-based steel production process.  An analysis of the energy consumption within the hydrogen-based steelmaking process reveals several components, including the electrolyze, direct reduction shaft furnace, electric arc furnace, and briquetted iron and hydrogen storage. The model results showed that electrolyzing alone accounts for 60% of the energy needed in the process. The model showed that hydrogen direct reduction steelmaking needs 3.66 MWH of electricity per ton of liquid steel produced in Sweden.  Only a few of the Swedish companies have adopted innovative approaches while the remaining steel mills primarily rely on scrap-based methods. While they may obtain hydrogen-reduced iron as a raw material in the future, emissions reduction is not their primary focus. These mills contribute to emissions through fuel usage, and efforts are underway to transition from fossil fuels to electricity, bio -based gas, or hydrogen. Hydrogen-based steel production produces significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions than conventional steel productio, by up to 90 percent, depending on the specific process and energy used, as stated in the life cycle analysis reviews.  This thesis shows key factors for the success of hydrogen-based steel production methods; low -emission electricity and flexibility to store hydrogen. All three countries have expressed interest in and invested in hydrogen-based steelmaking. the share of renewable energy produced and consumed in hydrogen-based steel production in Sweden is expected to make up a share of 2.3% of the total renewable energy production in the country, while Germany and the Netherlands are projected to contribute a modest 1.5% and 1.3% respectively. However, the search for ways to lower carbon dioxide emissions is costly in terms of the amount of electricity required. There are practical reasons for the restricted usage of this steelmaking process in Europe, including the availability of steel scrap, electricity demand, and the low likelihood of scrap generation and recycling scrap availability on the EU  market. Because of this, it is challenging to predict capacity and carbon dioxide reduction by 2050.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering / Ronaldo Maghirang / Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), including nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2), from open beef cattle feedlots is becoming an environmental concern; however, scientific information on emissions and abatement measures for feedlots is limited. This research was conducted to quantify GHG emissions from feedlots and evaluate abatement measures for mitigating emissions. Specific objectives were to: (1) measure N2O emissions from the pens in a commercial cattle feedlot; (2) evaluate the effectiveness of surface amendments in mitigating GHG emissions from feedlot manure; (3) evaluate the effects of water application on GHG emissions from feedlot manure; and (4) compare the photo-acoustic infrared multi-gas analyzer (PIMA) and gas chromatograph (GC) in measuring concentrations of N2O and CO2 emitted from feedlot manure. Field measurements on a commercial beef cattle feedlot using static flux chambers combined with GC indicated that N2O emission fluxes varied significantly with pen surface condition. The moist/muddy surface had the largest median emission flux; the dry and compacted, dry and loose, and flooded surfaces had significantly lower median emission fluxes. Pen surface amendments (i.e., organic residues, biochar, and activated carbon) were applied on feedlot manure samples in glass containers and evaluated for their effectiveness in mitigating GHG emissions. Emission fluxes were measured with the PIMA. For dry manure, all amendments showed significant reduction in N2O and CO2 emission fluxes compared with the control (i.e., no amendment). For moist manure, biochar significantly reduced GHG emissions at days 10 and 15 after application; the other amendments had limited effects on GHG emissions. The effect of water application on GHG emissions from feedlot manure was evaluated. Manure samples (with and without water application) were placed in glass containers and analyzed for GHG emission using a PIMA. For the dry manure, GHG emissions were negligible. Application of water on the manure samples resulted in short-term peaks of GHG emissions a few minutes after water application. Comparison of the GC and PIMA showed that they were significantly correlated but differed in measured concentrations of N2O and CO2. The PIMA showed generally lower N2O concentrations and higher CO2 concentrations than the GC.

Changes in climate caused by changes in anthropogenic (i.e. "man-made") greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have become a major public policy issue in countries all over the world. With an estimated 28.4% of these emissions attributed to the transportation sector, attention is being focused on strategies aimed at reducing transportation GHG emissions. Quantifying the change in GHG emissions due to such strategies is one of the most challenging aspects of integrating GHG emissions and climate change into transportation planning and policy analysis; the inventory techniques and methods for estimating the impact of different strategies and policies are still relatively unsophisticated. This research developed a method for estimating intercity passenger transportation energy and carbon footprints and applied this method to three US DOT-designated high speed rail (HSR) corridors in the U.S.-- San Francisco/Los Angeles/San Diego; Seattle/Portland/Eugene, and Philadelphia/Harrisburg/Pittsburg. The methodology consists of estimating the number of trips by mode, estimating the direct CO₂ emissions, and estimating indirect CO₂ emissions. For each study corridor the impacts of different strategies and policies on carbon dioxide emissions were estimated as an illustration of the policy application of the developed methodology. The largest gain in CO₂ savings can be achieved by strategies aiming at automobile emissions, due to its sizeable share as main mode and access/egress mode to and from airports and bus and train stations: an average fuel economy of 35.5 mpg would result in a 38-42% savings of total CO₂ emissions; replacing 25% of gasoline use with cellulosic ethanol can have a positive impact on CO₂ emissions of about 13.4-14.5%; and a 10% market share for electric vehicles would result in potential CO₂ savings of 3.4-7.8%. The impact of a 20% or 35% improvement in aircraft efficiency on CO₂ savings is much lower (0.88-3.65%) than the potential impacts of the policies targeting automobile emissions. Three HSR options were analyzed using Volpe's long-distance demand model: HSR125, HSR150, and HSR200. Only the HSR150 and HSR200 would result in CO₂ savings, and then just for two of the three corridors: the Pacific Northwest (1.5%) and California (0.8-0.9%). With increased frequency and load factors, a HSR150 system could result in CO₂ savings of 5.2% and 1.8% for the Pacific Northwest and California, respectively. This would require a mode shift from auto of 5-6%. This shift in auto mode share would mainly have to be a result of pricing strategies. From these results, HSR may not be such an obvious choice, however, with increased ridership and diversions from other modes, CO₂ savings increase significantly due to the lower emissions per passenger mile for HSR. The framework developed in this study has the ability to determine the GHG emissions for such HSR options and increased diversions.