Road transport is responsible for a significant share of the global GHG emissions. In order to address the increasing trend of road vehicle emissions, due to its heavy reliance on oil, Nordic countries have set ambitious goals and policies for the reduction of road transport GHG emissions. Despite the fact that the latest developments in the passenger car segment are leading towards the progressive electrification of the fleet, the decarbonization of heavy-duty vehicle segment presents significant challenges that are yet to be overcome. This study focuses, on the first part, on the regulatory framework of fuel economy standards of road vehicles, highlighting the absence of a European regulation on fuel efficiency for the heavy-duty sector. Energy efficiency technologies can be grouped mainly in vehicle technologies, driveline and powertrain technologies, and alternative fuels. The fuel efficiency of HDVs can be positively improved at different vehicle levels, but the technology benefit and its economic feasibility are heavily dependent on the vehicle type and the operational cycle considered. The electrification pathway has the potential of reducing the carbon emission to a great extent, but the current battery technologies have proven to be not cost efficient for the heavy vehicles, because of the high purchase price and the low range, related to the battery cost and inferior energy density compared to conventional liquid fuels.   A scenario development model has been created in order to estimate and quantify the impact of future developments and emission reduction measures in Finland, Sweden and Norway for the timeframe 2016-2050, with a focus on 2030 results. Two scenarios concerning the powertrain developments of heavy-duty vehicles and buses have been created, a conservative scenario and electric scenario, as well as vehicle efficiency improvements and fuel consumption scenarios. Additional sets of parameters have been estimated as input for the model, such as national transport need and load assumptions. The results highlight the challenges of achieving the national GHG emission reduction targets with the current measures in all three countries. The slow fleet renewal rates and the high forecasted increase of transport need limit the benefits of alternative and more efficient powertrains introduced in the fleet by new vehicles. The heavy-duty transport is expected to maintain its heavy reliance on diesel fuel and hinder the improvements of the light-duty segments. A holistic approach is needed to reduce the GHG emissions from road transport, including more efficient powertrains, higher biofuel shares and progressive electrification.

In preparation for a Climate Action Plan, this policy and practice audit provides an overview of current city policies and practices with the potential to impact greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction goals. The audit builds upon information previously collected in a GHG emissions inventory report to identify policies that are consistent or inconsistent with emissions reductions goals. Preliminary GHG emissions reductions recommendations address policy gaps and opportunity areas in suggesting strategies to achieve GHG emissions reductions.

Global warming is one of the biggest challenges of our society. The road transport sector is responsible for a big share of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, which are considered to be the dominant cause of global warming. Although most of those emissions are associated with traffic operation, road infrastructure should not be ignored, as it involves high consumption of energy and materials during a long lifetime. The aim of my research was to contribute to improved road infrastructure planning by developing methods and models to include a life cycle perspective. In order to reach the aim, GHG emissions and energy use at different life cycle stages of road infrastructure were assessed in three case studies using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). These case studies were also used for development of methodology for LCA of road infrastructure. I have also investigated the coupling of LCA with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the possibility to integrate LCA into Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). The results of the first case study indicated that operation of the tunnel (mainly, lighting and ventilation) has the largest contribution in terms of energy use and GHG emissions throughout its life cycle. The second case study identified the main hotspots and compared two methods for asphalt recycling and asphalt reuse. The results of the third case study indicated that due to the dominant contribution of traffic to the total impact of the road transport system, the difference in road length plays a major role in choice of road alternatives during early planning of road infrastructure. However, infrastructure should not be neglected, especially in the case of similar lengths of road alternatives, for roads with low volumes of traffic or when they include bridges or tunnels. This thesis contributed in terms of foreground and background data collection for further LCA studies of road infrastructure. Preliminary Bill of Quantities (BOQ) was identified and used as a source for site-specific data collection. A new approach was developed and tested for using geological data in a GIS environment as a data source on earthworks for LCA. Moreover, this thesis demonstrated three possible ways for integrating LCA in early stages of road infrastructure planning. / <p>QC 20160329</p>

At present, the global population is increasing, while soil and fresh water resources for crop production are declining. It is important to adopt sustainable practices to optimise the use of limited natural resources without compromising the environment, and to enhance continuous production in the long term. The rapid growth of UK strawberry industry has been achieved through the precision use of varieties, nutrients and polythene tunnels. This intensive production has caused significant environmental impacts especially Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from the production. Strawberry powdery mildew (Podosphaera aphanis) is a major fungal disease affecting strawberry production worldwide particularly in polythene tunnels. The disease can result in yield losses of up to 70% of the crop. A ruleQbased system was used in the field trials to predict high risk days of P. aphanis development, taking into account the optimal environmental conditions conducive to conidial germination and disease development. The results (Chapter 3) showed that the use of this prediction system achieved satisfactory control of P. aphanis in commercial strawberry production, with reduced fungicide applications compared with commercial spray programme. The results were consistent in two consecutive years and on different varieties. In addition, it was suggested that the use of the prediction system may also lead to lower GHG emissions associated with fewer fungicide applications, thereby benefit strawberry growers both environmentally and economically. Results from 2014 & 2015 silicon fertigation trials showed that the use of a silicon nutrient via the fertigation system reduced the strawberry susceptibility to P. aphanis and twoQspotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae Koch) in two consecutive years on different varieties (Chapter 4). In both years, crops received the silicon nutrient only without fungicides had both lower rate of epidemic (r) and lower value of Area Under the Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) (r = 0.0036, AUDPC = 475 in 2014; r = 0.001, AUDPC = 267 in 2015) compared with the untreated control (r = 0.0042, AUDPC = 662 in 2014; r = 0.0011, AUDPC = 281 in 2015). Silicon also delayed the epidemic buildQup in the silicon nutrient only treatment for approximately two weeks compared with the untreated control. Crops from the silicon nutrient plus fungicides treatment had lower susceptibility (r = 0.0012 in 2014; r = 0.0004 in 2015) than those from the fungicides only treatment (r = 0.0017 in 2014; r = 0.0005 in 2015) suggesting that the silicon nutrient may also enhance fungicides performance in reducing the epidemic buildQup when used together. Moreover, the presence of T. urticae on strawberry leaves was significantly lower (P < 0.001) in plants treated with the silicon nutrient than those without. In addition, initial results suggested that silicon may play a positive role in raising °Brix of strawberry leaf petiole, improving pollen viability, and influencing the length of flower receptacle and stamens. Maltmas Farm has a wide range of semiQnatural habitats that provide food and nesting resources for wild pollinators. Hoverflies, bumblebees and solitary bees were found to be the main wild pollinators that pollinate commercial strawberries at Maltmas Farm (Chapter 5). The number of pollinators in tunnels or open fields significantly correlated with the abundance of strawberry flowers (P < 0.05). Pollinator presence also differed between groups throughout the day and over the seasons. Hoverflies appeared early in the day and were abundant in summer months; bumblebees and solitary bees were present most of the day and throughout the season, whereas honeybees were only active in sunny days. Temperatures, relative humidity and cloud coverage also affected pollinator presence. In addition, pollinator activity was not significantly (P > 0.05) affected by the application of the silicon nutrient via the fertigation system. The integrated use of the prediction system (to reduce fungicide applications and subsequent GHG emissions), the silicon nutrient (to reduce crop susceptibility to P. aphanis and T. urticae), and sustainable farmland management (to encourage the presence of wild pollinators) could help strawberry growers to achieve a more sustainable production.

A seleção do tipo de pavimento é baseada atualmente no país considerando-se os custos de implantação e manutenção e o atendimento às normas técnicas, ou seja, a escolha é feita por meio de análise técnico-econômica. Órgãos federais, estaduais e municipais não preveem avaliação quantitativa do consumo de energia e da emissão de poluentes atmosféricos, utilizando somente o fator econômico como parâmetro decisivo sobre duas ou mais alternativas de estruturas de pavimento. Construções e reconstruções de pavimentos consomem um grande volume de energia tanto para obtenção e processamentos dos materiais quanto na aplicação e execução propriamente dita dos serviços. Tendo em vista a necessidade de considerar aspectos de sustentabilidade na escolha entre diferentes tipos de solução de pavimento, buscou-se avaliar a emissão de poluentes e consumo de energia e água para a fase de implantação do pavimento. Para tal foi avaliada a utilização de diferentes programas computacionais capazes de avaliar a questão ambiental qualitativamente, como o GreenroadsTM e o GreenPave, e quantitativamente, o GaBi, DuboCalc, VTTI/UC, ECORCE-M e PaLATE. Este último foi o escolhido para elaboração deste estudo sendo utilizado em análise unitária o que permitiu a elaboração de gráfico de impressão digital ambiental. São apresentados estudos de caso em três metodologias diferentes sendo que a última delas sugere a análise de três matrizes de solução totalizando mais de 230 mil casos que levam a obtenção de três equações de previsão das emissões de CO2 em função do tráfego, condição de suporte do subleito e número estrutural. Ao final, é sugerida a inserção da parcela ambiental na análise para escolha dos pavimentos com a utilização das ferramentas propostas, ou seja, as equações de previsão de emissões de CO2 e o gráfico de impressão digital ambiental. / The pavement structure selection in Brazil nowadays is based considering the costs of construction and maintenance and the check against design standards, in other words, the choice is made by a technical-economic analysis. Brazilian Federal agencies do not provide standards for a quantitative assessment of energy consumption and atmospheric pollutants emission, using only the economic factor as a decision parameter on two or more pavement structures. Pavement construction and reconstruction of pavement structures consume a large volume of energy while obtaining, processing and applying materials during paving services. Considering the need to account aspects of sustainability in the choice between different types of pavement solution, it was sought to evaluate the emission of pollutants and energy and water consumption for the pavement construction phase. In order to do so, it was evaluated the use of different softwares capable of account the environmental question qualitatively, such as the GreenroadsTM and GreenPave, and quantitatively, such as GaBi, DuboCalc, VTTI / UC, ECORCE-M and PaLATE. PaLATE was chosen to be software used in this study being used in unitary analysis that allowed the elaboration of environmental fingerprint graph. Case studies are presented in three different methodologies. The last suggests the analysis of three solution matrices totaling more than 230 thousand cases that leads to obtaining three prediction equations of CO2 emissions as a function of traffic, subgrade support condition and structural number. At the end, it is suggested the insertion of the environmental part in the pavement choose analysis with the use of the proposed tools, the CO2 forecasting emission equations and the environmental fingerprint graph.

A seleção do tipo de pavimento é baseada atualmente no país considerando-se os custos de implantação e manutenção e o atendimento às normas técnicas, ou seja, a escolha é feita por meio de análise técnico-econômica. Órgãos federais, estaduais e municipais não preveem avaliação quantitativa do consumo de energia e da emissão de poluentes atmosféricos, utilizando somente o fator econômico como parâmetro decisivo sobre duas ou mais alternativas de estruturas de pavimento. Construções e reconstruções de pavimentos consomem um grande volume de energia tanto para obtenção e processamentos dos materiais quanto na aplicação e execução propriamente dita dos serviços. Tendo em vista a necessidade de considerar aspectos de sustentabilidade na escolha entre diferentes tipos de solução de pavimento, buscou-se avaliar a emissão de poluentes e consumo de energia e água para a fase de implantação do pavimento. Para tal foi avaliada a utilização de diferentes programas computacionais capazes de avaliar a questão ambiental qualitativamente, como o GreenroadsTM e o GreenPave, e quantitativamente, o GaBi, DuboCalc, VTTI/UC, ECORCE-M e PaLATE. Este último foi o escolhido para elaboração deste estudo sendo utilizado em análise unitária o que permitiu a elaboração de gráfico de impressão digital ambiental. São apresentados estudos de caso em três metodologias diferentes sendo que a última delas sugere a análise de três matrizes de solução totalizando mais de 230 mil casos que levam a obtenção de três equações de previsão das emissões de CO2 em função do tráfego, condição de suporte do subleito e número estrutural. Ao final, é sugerida a inserção da parcela ambiental na análise para escolha dos pavimentos com a utilização das ferramentas propostas, ou seja, as equações de previsão de emissões de CO2 e o gráfico de impressão digital ambiental. / The pavement structure selection in Brazil nowadays is based considering the costs of construction and maintenance and the check against design standards, in other words, the choice is made by a technical-economic analysis. Brazilian Federal agencies do not provide standards for a quantitative assessment of energy consumption and atmospheric pollutants emission, using only the economic factor as a decision parameter on two or more pavement structures. Pavement construction and reconstruction of pavement structures consume a large volume of energy while obtaining, processing and applying materials during paving services. Considering the need to account aspects of sustainability in the choice between different types of pavement solution, it was sought to evaluate the emission of pollutants and energy and water consumption for the pavement construction phase. In order to do so, it was evaluated the use of different softwares capable of account the environmental question qualitatively, such as the GreenroadsTM and GreenPave, and quantitatively, such as GaBi, DuboCalc, VTTI / UC, ECORCE-M and PaLATE. PaLATE was chosen to be software used in this study being used in unitary analysis that allowed the elaboration of environmental fingerprint graph. Case studies are presented in three different methodologies. The last suggests the analysis of three solution matrices totaling more than 230 thousand cases that leads to obtaining three prediction equations of CO2 emissions as a function of traffic, subgrade support condition and structural number. At the end, it is suggested the insertion of the environmental part in the pavement choose analysis with the use of the proposed tools, the CO2 forecasting emission equations and the environmental fingerprint graph.

Global climate change is becoming increasingly evident. There has been increased attention paid to the impact of human activity on climate. As a rising power, China’s energy needs to fuel its rapid economic growth with the resulting potential impacts of climate change presents an enormous climate policy dilemma not only for China but also for the entire world. The role of China is an issue of perennial concerns at the international climate change negotiation: its energy saving, emission reduction and clean production reflect China’s dual objectives about sustainable development and efforts on international legal obligations.Education abroad is an integral part of China’s development strategy. The abroad Chinese students who possess the knowledge, technologies skills and ideas, as well as information are playing an important role to assist China retain or increase its competitive advantage. The aim of this paper is to analyze the abroad Chinese students’ opinion on China’s role under the circumstance of global climate change, with main focus on three aspects: Energy consumption and environment situation in China; Several current domestic policies regarding problems of climate change and energy consumption in China; Issues facing the country on its road map to future mitigation action regarding climate change.Alongside the interviews carried out within ten overseas Chinese students, using the social science of Science, Technology and Society (STS) especially its public understanding of Science and Technology as the theoretical perspective, this thesis is exploring the interviewees’ attitudes toward current China’s climate change related issues from a deeper sense of human, culture and public perspective.

Fossil fuels has preserved their importance in gradually increasing production and consumption of both energy and electricity of the world. Asia, especially China and India, has arisen new actors of the sector. Energy and electricity consumption of Turkey has also increased in parallel with her economic development, but due to her limited resources, she has become more and more energy dependent in order to meet her growing demand. Although hard coal is only found around Zonguldak region, with its abundant and widely spread reserves, Turkey ranked world&rsquo / s third place in lignite production in 2008. Having low calorific value together with high ash and moisture content, most of lignites extracted is being consumed in thermic power plants located near those reserves. In the first two chapters of this study, energy in the world and Turkey will be considered seperately, then coal resources in Turkey will be analysed in the next coming chapter. Indirect and direct greenhouse emissions presented to the UNFCCC will be handled in the fifth chapter In the last chapter, first past and present performances of all indigenous coal fired power plants will be analysed, then after projecting their generation and fuel needs, they are evaluated considering with the reserves they are located. Finally, at the end of decomissioning of those power plants, remaining reserves will be re-evaluated and additional new units will be proposed accordingly.

In this thesis the effects of two future greenhouse gas emissionreducing strategies in the passenger transport sector are investigated.Three factors were modelled for 2021-2055; The life cycle emissions offour vehicle types using a well-to-wheel life cycle analysis tool calledGREET, the growth curve of these vehicle types was analyzed andextrapolated to obtain total vehicle predictions and the mileage ofthese vehicles was extrapolated from existing governmental data. Theresulting scenarios show that in the short term E85 ex fuel vehicles arecapable of more avoided emissions, with EVs outperforming them inthe long term. However limitations in the prediction of vehicle mileageleaves the overtake point to be determined.

The intent of this thesis is to analyse the sustainability of producing bio-ethanol from cane molasses in Indonesia and its potential to replace gasoline in the transportation sector. A field trip was conducted in East Java, Indonesia, and data was gathered for analysis. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to analyse the net emissions and energy consumption in the process chain. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the life cycle are 17.45 gCO2e per MJ of ethanol produced. In comparison to gasoline, this results in a 78% reduction in GHG emissions in the complete process chain. Net Energy Value (NEV) and Net Renewable Energy Value (NREV) were 6.65 MJ/l and 24 MJ/l. Energy yield ratio (ER) was 9.43 MJ of ethanol per MJ of fossil energy consumed in the process. Economic allocation was chosen for allocating resources between sugar and molasses. Sensitivity analysis of various parameters was performed. The emissions and energy values are highly sensitive to sugarcane yield, ethanol yield and the price of molasses. Alternative management options were considered for optimizing the life cycle. Utilizing ethanol from all the mills in Indonesia has a potential to replace 2.3% of all motor gasoline imports. This translates in import savings of 2.3 trillion IDR per year. Use of anaerobic digestion or oxidation ponds for waste water treatment is unviable due to high costs and issues with gas leakage. Utilizing 15% of cane trash in the mill can enable grid independency. Environmental impacts due to land use change (Direct &amp; Indirect) can be crucial in overall GHG calculations. Governmental regulation is necessary to remove current economic hurdles to aid a smoother transition towards bioethanol production and utilization. / Harnessing agricultural feedstock and residues for bioethanol production - towards a sustainable biofuel strategy in Indonesia