Nickel enzymes have been suggested, through numerous phylogenetic studies, to have been among the very first catalytic compounds on the early Earth, possibly present in the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) or prior to the onset of life. This is because of the type of reactions catalyzed by some of these enzymes, the nature of organisms that utilize them, their distribution in the tree of life, and their key roles in what is now thought of as possibly one of the oldest carbon fixation pathways, the Wood-Ljungdahl (WL) pathway. Additionally, nickel is generally thought to have been an abundant element on the early Earth, highly soluble in what were, theoretically, euxinic (anoxic and sulfidic) ocean waters. This combined with the fact that the enzymes involved in the WL pathway have an active center configuration that resembles that of minerals found in hydrothermal vent walls, makes nickel enzymes a likely candidate to have evolved from what were proto-enzymes, responsible for the prebiotic catalysis of the first simple organic molecules prior to the origins of life, according to the so-called submarine alkaline hydrothermal vent theory, first presented by Michael J. Russell in 1993 (Russell et al. 1994). In this study, I expand the known coverage on the distribution of these enzymes by mapping them in 10,575 OTUs of microbial taxa. Using their pattern of distribution, I reconstruct their histories along the branches of a reference phylogenetic tree of the same taxa through methods of ancestral reconstruction of discrete traits. Additionally, I construct an individual gene tree for each of the enzymes in order to consolidate gene history with species history. My results showed that the redox nickel enzymes (except methyl-coenzyme M reductase) are ancestral to all prokaryotes, while non-redox enzymes are derived and with multiple origins, possibly due to lateral gene transfer events or convergent evolution. I propose that the patterns observed are a product of the drastic changes during early Earth history, namely a hypothesized “nickel famine” or the Great Oxidation Event, which acted as selective pressures.

Microbes exert extensive control on redox element cycles. They participate directly orindirectly in the concentration and fractionation of elements by influencing the partitioningbetween soluble and insoluble species. Putative microbially mediated manganese (Mn) oxidesof the birnessite-type, enriched in rare earth elements (REE) + yttrium (Y) were recentlyfound in the Ytterby mine, Sweden. A poorly crystalline birnessite-type phyllomanganate isregarded as the predominant initial phase formed during microbial Mn oxidation. Owing to ahigher specific surface area, this biomineral also enhances the known sorption property of Mnoxides with respect to heavy metals (e.g. REE) and therefore has considerable environmentalimpact.The concentration of REE + Y (2±0.5% of total mass, excluding oxygen, carbon and silicon)in the Ytterby Mn oxide deposit is among the highest ever observed in secondary precipitateswith Mn and/or iron. Sequential extraction provides evidence of a mineral structure where theREE+Y are firmly included, even at pH as low as 1.5. Concentration ratios of Mn oxideprecipitates to fracture water indicate a strong preference for the trivalent REE+Y overdivalent and monovalent metals. A culture independent molecular phylogenetic approach wasadopted as a first step to analyze the processes that microbes mediate in this environment andspecifically how the microbial communities interact with the Mn oxides. Plausible players inthe formation of the investigated birnessite-type Mn oxides are mainly found within theferromanganese genera Hyphomicrobium and Pedomicrobium and a newly identified YtterbyBacteroidetes cluster most closely related to the Terrimonas. Data also indicate that thedetected microorganisms are related to the environmental constraints of the site including lowconstant temperature (8°C), absence of light, high metal content and possibly proximity to theformer storage of petroleum products.

Eutrophication is one of the greatest threats for the Baltic Sea, and one of its more critical consequences is bottom water hypoxia. Nutrient enrichment and oxygen-depletion affect both the deep central basins and a number of coastal areas, even though strategies for nutrient reduction have lately been implemented. In order to better understand why those threats are expanding and formulate more effective remediation strategies two main achievements are needed: (1) new data on benthic nutrient dynamics should be available in order to develop updated budgets for sensitive Baltic areas; (2) the main transformation processes and their regulation mechanisms (i.e. oxygen availability, presence of macrofauna, different organic loading scenarios) should be better constrained. Paper I was able to demonstrate that re-oxygenation of previously anoxic sediment has a positive effect on the ecosystem because of better retention of nutrients and efficient conversion of fixed nitrogen to nitrogen gas. Sediment colonization by the invasive genus Marenzelleria counteracts some of the positive aspects provided by benthic oxygenation (in particular, nutrient retention, N2 loss). A possible explanation for this reversal can be that Marenzelleria does stimulate anaerobic more that aerobic metabolism. Results from Paper II suggest that at the outermost stations of Himmerfjärden denitrification follows a pronounced seasonal pattern, primarily regulated by bottom water temperatures. At the innermost and impacted site oxygen level in the bottom water varies considerably during the year and causes denitrification/DNRA predominance to be the main nitrate reduction pathway. On an annual scale, the net amount of lost N2 is comparable at the four sampling sites and accounts for 96% of the total DIN discharged from the sewage treatment plant, suggesting that denitrification in the estuarine sediment acts as a major nitrogen sink for external N inputs.

The method of combining multiple geophysical, geological, or geochemical datasets can reveal patterns of otherwise hidden features in the Earth’s crust. This may aid in geological mapping, locating economic mineral deposits and for general anomaly/feature detection. In this study a multidimensional geophysical approach implementing five geophysical datasets is applied using Self-Organizing Maps (SOM), where the main objective is to locate and understand a previously unknown hypothesized fault in Norrbotten, Sweden. The fault is estimated to extend from the Finnish border in the north, across northern Sweden in the N-S direction at a hypothesized length of > 250 km. Self-Organizing Maps is an unsupervised neural network - originally developed by Finnish physicist Teuvo Kohonen - capable of combining any number of datasets and thereby visualize them on a simple two-dimensional map. The datasets used in the analysis were three magnetic derivatives for the x, y and z components, as well as gamma-ray intensity measurements of the 238U, 40K and 232Th radioisotopes. All these variables have been shown to be effective tools for bedrock mapping and geological feature detection and were hence chosen based on these properties. The results revealed the efficiency of the SOM analysis to represent multivariate data on a 2D plane and proved to be a generally good visualization tool for multiple geophysical datasets. There seems to be a relatively sharp difference in geophysical properties between the eastern and western blocks divided by the hypothesized fault, which may indicate the presence of this crustal scale structure. Despite the evidence found in this study, more investigations are needed to verify the existence and nature of the fault, and the results shown here may motivate further projects by providing indications and suggestive evidence for its presence.

Heavy metals, such as mercury (Hg), have a long residence time in the atmosphere and can be transported long distances and deposited in the Arctic via wet and dry deposition. Still, there are few studies on the complex mercury cycle and how different plant groups absorb Hg. In this study, I investigated if and/or how Hg concentrations differ between different humus soils in tundra vegetation types in Alaska and Abisko. I also investigated the potential changes in Hg deposition with increasing elevation in Abisko (500, 750, and 1000 m a.s.l). Further, a comparison between the analyzing methods XRF (X-ray fluorescence) and HF digestion was evaluated to investigate if XRF is a suitable method for analyzing heavy metals in the humus layer of soils. To achieve this, humus soil samples from four different vegetation types in Alaska and two from Abisko were analyzed with a Hg analyzer (DMA-80 Direct Mercury Analyzer) and a handheld XRF. The results show that Hg concentration was highest in heath vegetation for Alaska and Abisko. Meanwhile, increasing elevation had no impact on Hg concentration in general, nor was there a difference within the two vegetation types. The comparison between HF digestion and XRF resulted in a positive linear relationship for P, Fe, and Al. The results highlight that Hg concentration differs between humus soil due to different vegetation types, although there is no clear explanation to the distribution of Hg in aboveground vegetation. Litterfall and precipitation may influence Hg concentrations with elevation, and the XRF samples need to be replicated multiple times to avoid errors, as my study shows.

Ni-laterites have the potential to become unconventional ore deposits for platinum group elements (PGE). This study was conducted to determine enrichment trends of PGE as a result of the Ni-laterization process. 6 samples were selected by mine workers from the protolith, saprolite, and limonite horizons of the Ni-laterite profile from the Acoje ophiolite block, Luzon, Philippines, and sent to Luleå University of Technology (LTU). 2 samples representing the protolith are described as dunite having undergone serpentinization, 1 sample is a massive chromitite from the saprolite layer of the laterite profile, 1 sample is a massive chromitite from the limonite layer of the laterite profile, and 2 samples are limonitic soils. Total PGE contents of the investigated Acoje samples range from 161-1180 ppb with the highest contents of PGE occurring in the limonite hosted chromitite, and the lowest contents in the saprolite hosted chromitite. C1 chondrite-normalized patterns reveal distinct trends of the PGE in the different sample types: dunite samples have a positive trend from Ir-Pd, the chromitite samples have a negative trend from Ru-Pd with a negative Ir anomaly and the limonite samples have a strong positive trend from Ir-Pd. Rare earth elements (REE) chondrite-normalized patterns of the samples show a negative Ce anomaly in the limonite while the dunite and saprolite-hosted chromitite have negative Eu anomalies. Cr# (Cr/[Al+Cr]) and Mg# (Mg/[Fe2++Mg]) were analyzed using automated mineralogy and produced Cr# values ranging from 0.67 – 0.77 and Mg# values from 0.46 – 0.59.  17 platinum group minerals (PGM) were identified from the Acoje samples: 9 from the dunite, 1 from the saprolite-hosted chromitite, 6 from the limonite-hosted chromitite and 1 from the limonite. Laurite ((Ru,Os)S2) was identified in samples A-02 and A-07 and is the only primary mineral identified. Secondary PGM, thought to have formed due to alteration processes during serpentinization, were identified as alloys composed of: Cu-Pd, Cu-Pt, Pt-Ni-Cu, Pt-Fe, Ir-Ni-(Pt,Fe), and Cu-Pt-Au-(Pd-Ag). PGM are small, measuring consistently <10 µm in diameter. Laurite occurs as inclusions in unfractured chromite. PGM alloys in the dunite samples occur along the boundary of sulfide minerals or within serpentine. PGM identified in the limonite-hosted chromitite occur along interstitial fractures within chromitite or in a Fe-Al oxide matrix within pore spaces.

The Silver Hart property is a high grade silver-lead-zinc deposit consisting of polymetallic vein style, manto (carbonate replacement) style, and skarn type mineralization. Host rock consists of calcareous and non-calcareous sediments of the Cassiar Platform, mainly biotite schists, limestone units, and the monzogranite unit of the Cassiar Batholith. Bulk geochemistry shows that silver concentrations are closely related to copper and antimony values, suggesting freibergite, a silver-rich endmember of tetrahedrite, is the dominant silver mineral. EPMA (microprobe) analyses identified 6 silver minerals present; silver-bearing anglesite, freibergite, diaphorite, stephanite, pyrargyrite, and silver substitution in galena. Sulfur isotope analyses of galena gave an average δ34S of 6.9‰ vs VCDT, indicating a mixed mineralizing fluid source. Metal zoning patterns indicates that there is a thermal gradient across the main vein from hottest in the south-west, above the monzogranite intrusion, to coolest in the north-east. Microprobe analyses of freibergite indicates initial ore-forming fluid temperatures were between 250°C - 350°C, with subsequent cooler mineralization fluids of 170°C - 200°C.

By analyzing the texture, composition and chemical composition of loess soils, the reconstruction ofpast climate regimes is enabled, which can improve our understanding of current and future climatechange. Properties such as grain size and composition, mineralogy, organic matter and chemicalcomposition can provide information about which environmental factors were present during thedeposition of the sediment, which can lead to a detailed picture of the climate history of a site. Researchon loess soils in the polar regions is particularly valuable because its climate is most rapidly affected byglobal warming. The purpose of the study has therefore been to understand and convey new data to thepaleo-climate around the Arctic by examining and analyzing loess soil sequences at a depth between 0and 175 cm from Adventdalen, Svalbard. In this study, the samples are analyzed with XRF (X-rayfluorescence) and LOI (Loss of Ignition). XRF is used to find out the mineral composition of the soils,while LOI is used to find out the percentage of organic content and carbonates.Data from the oldest part of the stratigraphic section indicate a sharp increase in weathering, from acooler period about 3000 years ago to a warming until about 2000 years ago. Weathering intensitiesderived from Na/Al-based indices show relatively frequent oscillations throughout the section, but arestable from about 100-70 cm. The high and stable weathering values during this period can probably beattributed to the Medieval Warm Period, which coincides with the relative dating of the site. Datacollected from the LOI shows a clear trend throughout the section, with a decrease in organic matterfrom 3000 BC to the present.

Human-caused emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are an established reason for the climate changes that affect planet Earth. Negative emission technologies (NETs), for example, bio-accelerated silicate weathering bioreactors, seek to capture and store carbon from the atmosphere. Bio-acceleratedsilicate weathering utilizes microorganisms to increase natural silicate weathering processes.This project aimed to evaluate the potential bio-accelerated weathering of two silicate rock types, Basalt Lavagestine, and La Palma lapilli, using a mixture of microorganisms, Bacillus Subtilis, Cupriavidus Metallidurans, Aureobasidium Pullulans, and Suillus Variegatus. Straw was used as an organic carbon and nutrient source for the organisms. There were six types of reactors, biotic, abiotic,and mineral controls for each of the two minerals, with triplicates. The reactors were watered five times a week with 50 mL of autoclaved distilled water, after each week the leachate from each reactor wascollected. Geochemical analyses of all leachates were performed, these were pH, conductivity, alkalinity, and carbon analyses. After the experiment, the mineral grains and straw were examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to observe the growth of organisms and the differences between reactor types.The biotic reactors for both minerals showed signs of enhanced weathering compared to their controls. The geochemical analyses showed that the alkalinity was doubled between the abiotic and biotic reactors for the basalt, and increased by roughly a third for the lapilli. The DIC was tripled for thebiotic basalt and doubled for the biotic lapilli. This indicated increased weathering rates and more sequestered carbon for the biotic reactors. SEM showed growth of fungi and bacteria in all biotic reactors. The extensive growth of fungi and biofilm formation was prominent in the basalt Lavagestineand a possible reason for the increased weathering compared to lapilli. The contrast in the surface structure of the minerals could be a second reason for the result. The two bacteria were colonizing one mineral each, which indicates differences in chemical composition. The C.Metallidurans were observed on the basalt grains and B.Subtilus on the lapilli. This report concludes that bio-enhanced weathering isa promising aspirant for NETs and that the selection of minerals is an important factor.

Oxidation of sulfidic mine waste is of significant environmental concern due to the consequent formation of acid rock drainage (ARD), deteriorating the water quality of natural water systems. Iron (Fe) and sulfur (S) are two major redox elements involved in these reactions and typically the major redox-sensitive elements (whose solubility, speciation, and mobility are affected by pH and Eh) in water affected by ARD. Measurements of Fe and S species concentrations may reveal valuable information about geochemical processes in mine waste but are typically included when analyzing the chemical composition of ARD. In this study, robust and portable methods for the determination of Fe and S species concentrations in leachate water affected by sulfidic mine waste were tested and evaluated. The leachate water resulting from interaction with high-  and low-sulfide waste rock was collected from three leaching columns, each reflecting different geochemical environments that could occur during mine waste management: (1) fully oxidized conditions (reference column), (2) gradual oxygen depletion from atmospheric level to <1% (anoxic column), (3) treatment with alkaline industrial residual material (alkaline column). The leachate water was analyzed for its pH, Eh, electric conductivity (EC), and major and trace elements. UV-Vis spectrophotometric ferrozine method was tested and applied for Fe speciation and concentration analysis, allowing determination of Fe(II) and Fetot and further calculation of Fe(III) as a difference. The method was found to achieve accurate and reliable results. Turbidimetry was tested and evaluated for dissolved sulfate analysis, and even though the analytical precision was poorer, ca. ±20%, the method provides useful semi-quantitative estimations of dissolved sulfate concentrations. Both spectrophotometry and turbidimetry are easy to perform and utilizes robust, cheap and portable instrumentation. Leachate water from the high and low sulfide experiments had pH and Eh in the range of pH 2.6 – 12 and Eh 200 – 720 mV and pH 3.5 – 4 and Eh 550 – 700 mV, respectively. Measurements of iron species and sulfate concentrations revealed that sulfate was the dominating S species and during the background leachate Fe(II) was the predominant Fe oxidation state. Upon decreasing oxygen saturation and pH in the anoxic column, Fe speciation in the reference and anoxic column differed, with the relative importance of Fe(III) increasing in the anoxic column. Total Fe, pH and Eh potential measured in the leachate water did not respond to decreasing oxygen saturation, but changes in the Fe redox speciation coincided with this decrease. Under alkaline conditions, total Fe and sulfate concentrations decreased in the alkaline environment, indicating their immobilization in the solid phase. Geochemical calculations were carried out to gain further understanding of the dominant reactions in the columns. Theoretical values of Fe(II) and Fe(III) concentrations were calculated from the measured redox potential, and these were found to deviate from the measured concentrations. Therefore, estimation of Fe species distribution from redox measurements using a Pt-electrode is not considered sufficient in these systems. Mineral saturation indices of common secondary minerals associated with ARD indicated dissolution of ferrihydrite, jarosite and schwertmannite in the leachate water from the anoxic column. This suggests that these minerals are the probable source of the Fe and sulfate, as well as As and Cu released to the leachate water.