På Sveriges järnvägsnät bekämpas ogräs med det kemiska bekämpningsmedlet glyfosat. En omställning är nu på gång och fler bekämpningsmetoder behöver introduceras, bland annat för att motverka resistensutveckling hos ogräsen. I detta arbete jämfördes bekämpning med pelargonsyra, hetvatten, vattenånga och elektricitet med avseende på effektivitet, kostnad, energi- och vattenåtgång. Glyfosat användes som referens. Jämförelsen gjordes genom att sammanställa tillgängliga forskningsrapporter. Bekämpningsmetodernas användbarhet analyserades genom att uppskatta resursåtgången för att ersätta den kemiska bekämpningen på linjen eller driftplatser, eller för att bekämpa restriktionsytor. Det undersöktes också huruvida kostnaden för ogräsbekämpning över tid har betydelse för val av ballastfri järnväg. Resultatet visade att de alternativa metoderna är både dyrare och kräver en högre energi- och vattenåtgång än glyfosat. De ger också en mindre effektiv ogräsbekämpning och upprepade behandlingar behöver därför göras under växtsäsongen. Detta i kombination med att de med dagens teknik appliceras i låg hastighet gör bekämpningen dyr och tidskrävande. För att kunna säga i vilken omfattning de alternativa bekämpningsmetoderna är möjliga att implementera behövs riktlinjer för vilken kostnad, effektivitet samt vatten- och energiåtgång som kan tolereras. Resultatet tyder på att det kan vara möjligt att införa alternativa bekämpningsmetoder på driftplatser och restriktionsytor. För att ersätta glyfosat längs hela järnvägslinjen behöver de utvecklas, speciellt med avseende på effektivitet. För bekämpning med hetvatten och vattenånga var den stora vattenåtgången en stor nackdel. Bekämpningsmetodernas kostnad utgjorde under 5 % av det totala underhållsbehovet på en ny järnväg av ballast. Den ökade kostnaden för ogräsbekämpning ledde som mest till att en ballastfri järnväg blev lönsam två år tidigare för de alternativa metoderna än för glyfosat. Valet mellan en ballasterad och ballastfri järnväg bedömdes inte påverkas nämnvärt av detta. Dock identifierades faktorer som kan göra bekämpningskostnaden högre än vad den här rapporten har kunnat påvisa. Vid en omställning från glyfosat till alternativa metoder bör man därför vid lönsamhetsberäkningar för ny järnväg vara vaksam på vad bekämpningen på det ballasterade alternativet skulle kosta. / Weeds are growing along the Swedish railway network. In order for them to not cause problems they are being removed chemically with the herbicide glyphosate. Due to problems such as a risk for an increase in weeds that are tolerant to glyphosate alternative methods for weed control are now being considered.  This report compared pelargonic acid, hot water, hot water steam and electricity as control methods in terms of efficacy, cost, energy and water consumption. Glyphosate was used as a reference. The comparison was made by reviewing available research articles. The usability of the control methods was then analysed by estimating the use of resources necessary to implement each method for three different scenarios. Whether the choice between a ballasted or fixed rail was affected or not by the cost for weed control was also investigated. The results showed that the alternative weed control methods required more energy and water than glyphosate. They also provide less effective weed control which means repeated treatments are necessary during the growing season. This, combined with a low application speed, makes the weed control expensive and time consuming. To be able to say to what extent each control method is possible to implement guidelines are needed for tolerated cost, effectiveness, energy- and water consumption. The result suggests that it is possible to introduce alternative control methods to a certain extent. However, in order to replace glyphosate along the entire main line, the methods all need to be developed, especially in terms of effectiveness. For hot water and steam treatment there is also a need for a decrease in water consumption.  The cost for weed control accounted for less than 5 % of the total cost for maintenance on a new ballasted railway. The rise in cost due to alternative weed management resulted in the fixed track becoming profitable up to two years earlier with the alternative management compared to glyphosate. The choice between a ballasted and fixed track was not considered to be significantly affected by this. However, factors were identified that could make the cost of weed control higher than this report showed. Therefore, when alternative methods are introduced, one should consider the cost for weed control on the ballasted track when making the choice between the two types of tracks.

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Although the use of pesticides is necessary to meet the socio-economic needs of many developing countries, especially in Africa, side effects of these bio-active chemicals have contributed to contaminating aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Environmental water quality degradation by pesticides interferes with ecosystem health and poses numerous risks to aquatic life. In South Africa, glyphosate-based herbicides are frequently used to control weeds and invading alien plants, but ultimately end up in freshwater ecosystems. However, there are no South African-based environmental water quality management strategies to regulate these bio-active chemicals. Therefore, this study sought to provide a sound scientific background for the environmental water quality management of glyphosate-based herbicides in South Africa, by conducting both laboratory and field investigations. In the laboratory investigations, aquatic ecotoxicological methods were used to evaluate responses of the freshwater aquatic shrimp Caridina nilotica exposed to Roundup® at different biological system scales, and the responses of multiple South African aquatic species exposed to Roundup® through species sensitivity distribution (SSD). In the field investigations, the effect of Kilo Max WSG on the physicochemical and biological conditions of three selected sites in the Swartkops River before and after a spray episode by Working for Water were evaluated through biomonitoring, using the South African Scoring System version 5 (SASS5) as a sampling protocol. Both Roundup® and Kilo Max WSG are glyphosate-based herbicides. All the data were subjected to relevant statistical analyses. Findings of this study revealed that Roundup® elicited responses at different biological system scales in C. nilotica, while SSD estimates were used to derive proposed water quality guidelines for glyphosate-based herbicides in South Africa. The biomonitoring revealed that using glyphosate-based herbicides to control water hyacinth within the Swartkops River had a negligible impact on the physicochemical and biological conditions. Based on these findings, a conceptual framework that can be used for the integrated environmental water quality management of glyphosate-based herbicides in South Africa was developed as part of integrated water resource management (IWRM). The combined data sets contribute to a sound scientific basis for the environmental water quality management of glyphosate-based herbicides in South Africa.

The spider mite occurrence, on soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merril), is sporadic and associated whit dry periods. Recently, in continuous years, was reported mite outbreaks in soybean, in some sites of Rio Grande do Sul State. In this context two research was conducted, one in summer crop 2004/05 and other in 2005/06. The first was carried for study the mite occurrence and geographic distribution, on soybean, from some place of Rio Grande do Sul State. The second was conducted for study the effect of the two soybean cultivars and of some weed management systems on mite density and study their population dynamic on soybean. In summer crop 2004/05 was carried some mite samplings in soybean field at State. The mite species found, all beloung to the Tetranychidae family, are Mononychellus planki (McGregor), Tetranychus desertorum Banks, T. gigas Pritchard & Baker, T. ludeni Zacher and T. urticae Koch. Most of this species are well distributed in the diferents sampling regions of this study. From the results was made a species distribution map and a taxonomic key. In summer crop 2005/06, in Santa Maria, RS, 11 treatments was study. Its was constitute in two soybean cultivars, one transgenic glyphosato-tolerant and other non-transgenic, every one whit five weed management systems: (1) without management; (2) hand management; (3) herbicide bentazone + sethoxydim; (4) bentazone only; (5) sethoxydim only. The 11th treatment was the herbicide glyphosate sprayed on the transgenic soybean. The mite species found in this study are M. planki and T. gigas. The weed management systems is more determinant, on the spider mite population on soybean, than the soybean cultivar. The mite population presenteded inverse correlation whit weed infestation and weed density. The climatic fators determined the mite population flutuation and the population peak occured in the initial period of soybean pods development. / A ocorrência de ácaros-praga em soja (Glycine max (L.) Merril) é esporádica e está, comumente, associada à períodos de estiagem. Recentemente, em safras seguidas, foram observados ataques severos de ácaros à soja em algumas regiões do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Neste contexto foram realizados dois experimentos, um na safra agrícola 2004/05 e outro em 2005/06. O primeiro teve objetivo de estudar a ocorrência e a distribuição geográfica de ácaros fitófagos, associados à soja, em municípios de seis regiões produtoras do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. O segundo objetivou avaliar o efeito de duas cultivares de soja e de diferentes sistemas de manejo de plantas daninhas sobre a densidade populacional de ácaros em soja e estudar a dinâmica populacional destes ácaros na cultura. Em 2004/05 foram realizadas amostragens de ácaros em lavouras de soja no Estado. As espécies de ácaros encontradas são Mononychellus planki (McGregor), Tetranychus desertorum Banks, T. gigas Pritchard & Baker, T. ludeni Zacher e T. urticae Koch, todos são tetraniquídeos. A maior parte destas espécies estiveram bem distribuídas nas diferentes regiões amostradas neste levantamento. Com base nestes resultados foi elaborado um mapa com a distribuição das espécies e uma chave de identificação. Em 2005/06 foram estudados, em Santa Maria, RS, 11 tratamentos. Estes consistiram em duas cultivares de soja, uma transgênica glifosato-tolerante e a outra não-transgênica, cada uma sob cinco sistemas de manejo de plantas daninhas: (1) sem controle; (2) arranquio manual; (3) manejo tradicional com os herbicidas bentazona e setoxidim; (4) apenas com bentazona; (5) apenas com setoxidim. E adicionalmente um tratamento com o herbicida glifosato sobre a cultivar de soja transgênica. Os ácaros-praga ocorrentes foram M. planki e T. gigas. A densidade populacional destes ácaros em soja foi mais afetada pelos sistemas de manejo de plantas daninhas do que pela cultivar, e esteve inversamente correlacionada com a quantidade e diversidade de plantas daninhas. A flutuação populacional destes ácaros foi influenciada por fatores climáticos e o pico populacional ocorreu na fase de início da formação de legumes da soja.

面對未來全球人口成長、可耕地減少等現象，生物技術在農業上的應用日益增加。其中，基因改造技術等基因層次相關的平臺應用技術更是提升農作物價值的關鍵—透過跨物種功能應用，大幅提升育種效率。自1996年基改作物商業化種植開始至今，美國都是全球最大種植國家，也是基改作物研發先驅國家。生技農業政策以及和基因改造作物有關法規之制訂使基改作物在美國蓬勃發展，尤其是專利保護對於種子產業之影響尤為深遠。專利權所提供的完善保護使大量資本進入種子產業，投入資源將農業生物技術應用於種子培育上，此舉也促成Monsanto等跨國農業生技公司之興起，主導全球基因改造作物之市場。 Monsanto將研發重心放在基改種子之研發，其在生技種子相關營業比重遠高於同業，同時，其投入特殊性狀之基改種子研發之回收遠高於其他公司之相同營業項目之投資報酬率。Monsanto積極藉由併購取得基因、基因轉殖技術以及種子種源。掌握關鍵基因、基因轉殖技術以及大量且優良種源使含有Monsanto轉殖基因作物在市場上佔有極大的比例。在美國，超過一半以上之主要作物種植面積為基因改造作物，尤其是基因改造大豆，佔大豆總種植面積之比例高達94%。市面上絕大多數基改大豆係Monsanto的抗嘉磷塞（RounupReady，RR1Y）基改大豆種子。藉由智慧財產保護策略，Monsanto並進一步限制RR1Y及其他基改作物之使用方式。 惟RR1Y專利將在2014年到期，農民可在2014年時留種種植基改大豆種子而不用每年購買種子，或購買學名（generic）抗嘉磷塞轉基因大豆種子。在美國所種植之大豆約有四成會外銷，而外銷國家基改作物規範法規是出口與否之關鍵。若未取得歐盟、中國等主要外銷國家基改作物主管機關之批准，呈交包括基因之轉殖植物對環境衝擊之風險評估、包含該基因之轉殖植物所製成食品之安全性評估等基改作物資訊，則抗嘉磷塞基因大豆無法進入該國糧食市場。然而，在目前美國農業生技基改作物相關規範下，學名基改種子廠必須在專利種子專利到期後，才能進行實驗及田間試驗，呈交相關資料以符合基改作物主管機關之要求。透過建立學名基改作物快速獲得核准查驗登記之程序，允許學名廠依賴專利基改作物原廠之實驗及田間試驗資料以建立其學名基改作物之安全性與性狀表現有效性，同時，允許學名基改作物在原基改作物開發廠專利期滿前即可開始進行試驗，可以使學名抗嘉磷塞大豆種子以及其他學名基改種子能在原專利基改作物種子專利到期後順利進入市場，促使基改作物種子價格競爭，並對於專利基改作物研發公司進行適度之補償，以促進產業發展。 / The development of new technologies in plant breeding has led to improvements in the efficiency scientists produce improved plant varieties. Genetic modification is among the developments that support plant breeding. The introduction of genetically modified crops has revolutionized the agriculture industry. With patent protection available on GM traits, varieties and other aspects of seed production, private R&D investments in the seed industry have increased tremendously. Monsanto has been the leading company in investing agricultural biotechnology and has obtained a dominant position in the GM traits found in soybeans, cotton, corn and other commercialized crops. Currently, over 90 percent of soybeans planted in the United States were herbicide-resistant, with Monsanto’s Roundup Ready being the dominant soybeans planted. In 2014, however, the agriculture industry will be facing the expiration of a patent for Roundup Ready soybeans. Despiate the fact that the patent expiration date is approaching, the agricultural biotech industry has no guideline in place to tell its players exactly how to transition seamlessly from patent monopolies to generic competition. The transition problem is espectially significant for soybeans exported to oversea markets as more than 40 percent of the soybeans grown in the U.S. are exported. In order for those soybeans to be accepted in the grain channel, regulatory approvals are required in countries that import soybeans. Obtaining data, which includes scitific data on the trait being developed, for regulatory approvals can take years to complete. If a generic trait is to reach market immediately after the original trait go off patent, the data generation process should begin before patent expiration. A Hatch-Waxman type patent infringement defense for activities necessary to obtain regulatory approvals for biotech traits can ensure that seed companies have sufficient time to obtain registrations for a generic Roundup Ready trait or other generic traits. Current legislation should be modified to adequately oversee the transition to the generic use of genetically modified crops and, in the mean time, ensure the availability of generic modified crops.