Very little empirical evidence exists linking the motivational traits portion of the motivational traits and skills framework to goal setting processes. The present study explored relationships between motivational traits, task-specific self-efficacy and self-set goal level during a computer-based task. Along with direct assessment of these relationships, we assessed whether task-specific self-efficacy mediates relationships between motivational traits and self-set goal level. In the current study, we also examined the ability of motivational traits to provide an increment in the prediction of motivational outcomes over currently accepted goal orientation constructs. Analyses suggest that the motivational traits personal mastery and motivation related to anxiety are consistent predictors of task-specific self-efficacy but inconsistent predictors of self-set goal level while competitive excellence entirely unrelated to motivational outcomes. Motivational traits failed to provide any significant increment in the prediction of task-specific self-efficacy over respective goal orientation constructs. Implications and future directions are discussed. / Master of Science

The present study set out to examine whether negative goal-performance discrepancy (GPD) feedback for one task could have a negative effect on goal-setting associated with an unrelated, distinct task. A series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. Results show that large versus small negative GPD feedback on a creativity task impacted levels of specific self-efficacy for a stock-predicting task, which indicated a motivational spillover effect. However, large negative GPD on the creativity task was not evidenced to impact performance goals for the stock-predicting task, as hypothesized. Results also indicate that the larger the magnitude of negative GPD feedback, the more individuals experienced an increase in negative mood and decrease in positive mood, however mood was not evidenced to impact performance goals. / Master of Science

Altering driver's goals and motives for at-risk driving is likely to reduce the frequency of at-risk driving behaviors and their associated crashes and injuries. However, most driving occurs when people are alone with little supervisions or accountability. Thus, a self-management for safety (SMS) intervention may be the most appropriate technique to decrease at-risk driving behaviors. The current research evaluated an SMS process with college students on a simulated driving task. Participants included 93 university students (41 males, 52 females) randomly assigned to one of three groups (31 participants per group). Participants in the Control group did not receive any of the intervention materials; they were instructed to drive as they normally drive on each trial. Participants in the Self-Monitoring + Objective Feedback group received objective feedback from the experimenter about their actual performance on the target driving behavior as well as personal feedback from their self-monitoring forms. These participants recorded their individual improvement goals on the targeted driving behavior. Participants in the Self-Monitoring group recorded their individual improvement goals on the targeted driving behavior, but received only personal feedback from their self-monitoring forms. Similar to past self-management interventions directed at increasing safety-related driving behavior (Hickman & Geller, in press; Krause, 1997; Olson & Austin, 2001), SMS led to clear improvement in subsequent safety performance. Based on the recorded driving behaviors of 93 participants, SMS was effective in increasing the mean percentage of total driving time traveling below the posted speed limit compared to a Control group that did not receive any of the SMS components. Across the four trials, participants in the SM and SM + OFB group significantly increased the percentage of total driving time traveling below the posted speed limit by 13.4 (18.3%) and 14.5 (19.8%) percentage points, respectively, compared to participants in the Control group. / Ph. D.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relative effectiveness of two different ways of operationalizing a mastery experience in an e-mail based fitness walking program. Mastery experiences are considered the best way to increase exercise self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), which is strongly associated with regular physical activity, but little research has systematically explored how effective mastery experiences can be developed. Fifty-nine sedentary adult women were randomly assigned to a mastery experience group (n=29) that operationalized mastery experiences in a manner consistent with Bandura's social cognitive theory, or to a standard care group (n=30) that operationalized mastery experiences in a manner consistent with standard care. Both intervention conditions received the same physical activity prescription and were designed to promote equivalent levels of contact with the experimenter over the 12-week program. The effects of the program were examined on overall adherence to the program, one-mile walk test times, estimated VO2max, social cognitive outcomes, and program evaluation ratings. Both the mastery experience group and the standard care group had similar levels of adherence to the program. The mastery experience group demonstrated a significantly greater improvement in one-mile walk test time than the standard care group. Although the mastery experience group also showed a larger increase in estimated VO2max than the standard care group, this difference did not reach significance. The mastery experience group had significantly greater increases in goal-setting relative to the standard care group, but the intervention did not show any differences between the two groups on three measures of self-efficacy. In program evaluation ratings, the mastery experience group demonstrated greater satisfaction with the program than the standard care group. / Ph. D.

The effects of setting goals on goal commitment and goal achievement in the context of an alcohol use intervention were examined using an experimental design in which participants were randomly assigned to participatively-set goals, assigned goals, and no goal conditions. The current study provides information regarding the links between degree of participation in goal setting, goal commitment, self-efficacy for one's goal, subsequent alcohol use, and goal achievement. It was hypothesized that: 1) Goal setting and participation in goal setting would significantly predict alcohol use outcomes: a) having a goal for alcohol consumption would cause lower quantity and frequency of alcohol use relative to not having a goal; b) participation in goal setting, rather than being assigned a goal, would influence goal achievement such that participation in goal setting would cause greater success in achieving one's goal. 2) Participation in goal setting would influence goal commitment such that participation in goal setting would cause greater goal commitment. 3) Goal commitment would influence goal achievement such that greater goal commitment would be predictive of greater success in achieving one's goal. 4) The facilitative effect of participation in goal setting on subsequent goal achievement would be mediated by goal commitment. 5) Self-efficacy for one's goal would influence goal achievement such that greater self-efficacy for one's goal would be predictive of greater success in achieving one's goal. One hundred and twenty-six binge-drinking college students received a single cognitive-behavioral assessment/intervention session and completed measures of goal commitment, self-efficacy for goal achievement, and alcohol use. Results were consistent with, and expanded upon, previous research by demonstrating that having a goal for alcohol consumption was predictive of lower quantity and frequency of alcohol use relative to not having a goal; however, participation in goal setting did not result in significantly better alcohol use outcomes or greater goal achievement relative to when goals were assigned. Participation in goal setting yielded greater goal commitment and self-efficacy for goal achievement than assigned goals. Lastly, goal commitment and self-efficacy contributed unique variance to the prediction of goal achievement across follow-up as well as changes in quantity and frequency of alcohol use at follow-up after controlling for baseline use. / Ph. D.

Guided by the research on cognitive performance tasks (e.g., Wood, Mento, & Locke, 1987), the potential moderating effects of skill and outcome difficulty upon the relationship between specific, difficult goals and physical task performance were examined from an attribute treatment approach. Overall, different measures of performance yielded several convergent findings. Using a sample of 184 laboratory participants, a test of the primary hypothesis failed to support the expected three-way interaction among skill, outcome difficulty and goal setting. Models containing skill and outcome difficulty were found to provide the most parsimonious explanation of variance in performance, regardless of whether assigned or personal goal were used as an index of motivation. After controlling for skill and outcome difficulty, goal commitment showed a weak positive relationship with task performance. Self-efficacy was not related to performance among participants pursuing specific, difficult goals. Potential reasons for the failure to obtain evidence of the predicted three-way interaction among skill, outcome difficulty, and goals are discussed in the context of limitations to the present study. Future research directions are suggested. / Master of Science

Cashiers' identification-checking behaviors were observed at two grocery stores with the aim to actively involve cashiers in decreasing credit-card fraud. After baseline observations, cashiers at one store received a participative goal-setting and feedback intervention, whereby they collaboratively set a store goal for checking customers' identification. Over 23 days, the cashiers received one-to-one verbal feedback on their store's identification-checking percentages. The percentage of identification-checked purchases at the intervention store increased from 0.2 percent at Baseline to 9.7 percent during the Intervention. Then, it declined to 2.3 percent during Withdrawal, showing functional control of the intervention over the cashiers' target behavior. The cashiers at the other store served as the control group, and their percentage of identification-checked purchases were 0.3 percent, 0.4 percent, and 0.7 percent respectively during each of the A-B-A phases at the intervention store. It was also found the intervention affected male cashiers more than female cashiers. The present study also assessed the social validity of the current intervention by surveying both customers and cashiers from the intervention store. The results showed that customers do not mind getting their ID checked, while cashiers consider it important to check a customer for identification during a credit purchase. / Master of Science

Förmågan att kunna kommunicera är av yttersta vikt för att en organisation ska vara fungerande. Det är också nödvändigt för en organisation att kunna förändra sig för att förbli effektiv. Motivation är det som sätter tankar i handling och därför bör det vara en viktig aspekt när det kommer till internkommunikation i stora organisationer som genomgår förändringar.      Uppsatsen baseras på en fallstudie av en organisationsförändring vid Karlstads universitet som genomfördes 1 januari 2013, där kvalitativa intervjuer använts som metod. Undersökningen gjordes under november och december 2012 då förändringsprocessen var i sitt slutskede. Intervjuer utfördes med både informanter och respondenter anställda vid Karlstads universitet.   Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka internkommunikationens betydelse för hur medarbetare motiveras till en organisationsförändring. Utifrån syftet har tre frågeställningar formulerats: (1) Hur önskar medarbetare vid Karlstads universitet att information kommuniceras internt vid en organisationsförändring? (2) Överensstämmer medarbetares och implementeringsgruppen vid Karlstads universitets uppfattningar om hur information om en organisationsförändring bör kommuniceras? (3) Hur anser medarbetare vid Karlstads universitet att motivation skapas inför en organisationsförändring genom internkommunikation?   Resultatet från de intervjuer som genomförts har analyserats utifrån teorier som till exempel transmissionsmodellen, goal setting teorin och McLuhans teori om kanalval.  Denna undersökning visar att den närmsta chefen ses som den viktigaste informationskanalen. Det kommer även fram att medarbetarna tycker det är viktigt att organisationen använder sig av många olika kanaler när de kommunicerar och att muntlig kommunikation ses som en nödvändighet. Resultatet visar även att intern- och externkommunikation bör ses som lika betydelsefulla för en organisation och därför borde lika mycket energi och resurser läggas på de två. Uppsatsen presenterar utifrån dessa resultat en tankemodell på hur organisationer kan se på kommunikationsprocessen kring en organisationsförändring. / The ability to communicate is of utmost importance for an organization to be functional. It is also important for an organization to be able to change in order to stay effective. Motivation is what puts thoughts in to actions and should therefore be an important part of the internal communication in large organizations going through changes.   This paper is based on a case study of an organizational change at Karlstad University that took place the 1st of January 2013. The method used in this case study was qualitative interviews. The study took place during November and December 2012 when the process of change was coming to an end. The interviews was conducted with both informants and respondents employed at Karlstad University.   The aim of this study is to examine internal communications importance in motivating employees during an organizational change. There is also three questions of issue that has been examined further: (1) How do employees at Karlstad University wish that information gets communicated internaly in the organization during an organizational change? (2) Do employees and managers at Karlstad University share ideas of how information about the change at hand should be communicated during an organizational change? (3) How do employees at Karlstad University consider that motivation gets created through internal communication facing an organizational change?   The result from the interviews was analyzed through theories such as the transmission model, McLuhan’s theory about mediums and the goal setting theory. This study shows that the immediate supervisor is the most important channel for communication. It also shows that employees considers it important that the organization communicates through a variety of channels and that oral communication is a necessity. The result also shows that internal and external communication should be seen as equally important for the organization. And equal amounts of energy and money should be spent on both internal and external communication. The paper presents a conceptual model of how organizations should look at the communication process surrounding an organizational change. The model is based on the results of the study.

Background & problem: Modern day companies face increasingly harsh economic conditions,which in turn increases the pressure to meet markets requirements. When more stringentdemands are made on corporate finances, it is necessary to have sufficient knowledge aboutthe management of limited resources. Companies justify their existence by striving to achievetheir goals, financial as well as non-financial. Therefore, it is important to be aware that thereare a number of different goals at different levels of a company. One way of influencing theemployee’s personal goals and to create performance that is in favor of the organization’soverall goals is by using reward systems. The balance between rewarding employees to achievethe goals of an organization whilst consuming a limited amount of resources available for thispurpose is a challenge for all managers.Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to describe and analyse how a reward system is designedin accordance with company goals.Method: The thesis is based on a case study with a qualitative research strategy. The study isbased on previous research on reward systems and goal congruence. The conducted surveyconsisted of interviews with people who have a good understanding of reward systems.Result and conclusions: For the sales force, it is common to base the financial part of a rewardsystem on commission, a performance-based system. The results strongly suggest that financialrewards should be combined with non-financial rewards to increase the total benefit of theoverall reward system. Among these, personal responsibility, free working hours and praise, orpositive feedback should be emphasized. The conclusions of the study show that through theuse of a well-designed reward system, companies can create goal congruence despite a lack ofclear goals and in some cases even when these goals have not reached the employees. / Bakgrund & problemdiskussion: Dagens företag möter allt hårdare ekonomiska villkor som isin tur leder till att det ställs högre krav för att överleva. När det ställs högre krav på företagensekonomi krävs det en god lära om hushållning med begränsade resurser. Företag skapar sittexistensberättigande genom att sträva efter att uppnå sina mål, finansiella som icke-finansiella.Därför är det viktigt att vara medveten om att det finns en rad olika målbilder inom olika nivåeri ett företag. Ett sätt att påverka de anställdas personliga målbilder och få dem att prestera ilinje med organisationens övergripande mål är att nyttja belöningssystem som styrmedel.Balansgången mellan att genom belöning styra sina anställda mot att uppnå organisationensmål och samtidigt förbruka en begränsad mängd resurser, som är tillgängliga för detta ändamål,är en utmaning för alla företagsledare.Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att beskriva och analysera hur ett belöningssystem designas iriktning med företags mål.Metod: Uppsatsen bygger på en fallstudie med kvalitativ forskningsstrategi. Studien bygger påtidigare forskning om belöningssystem och målkongruens. Undersökningen utgjordes avintervjuer med personer som har god kännedom om belöningssystem.Resultat och slutsatser: För säljkåren är det vanligt förekommande att basera den finansielladelen av ett belöningssystem kring provision, ett prestationsbaserat system. Resultaten talarstarkt för att finansiella belöningar bör kombineras med icke-finansiella belöningar för att ökaden totala nyttan av det sammantagna belöningssystemet. Bland dessa läggs störst vikt främstvid eget ansvar, fria arbetstider och beröm, eller positiv feedback. Slutsatsen visar att företaggenom nyttjandet av ett väl designat belöningssystem kan skapa målkongruens trots enavsaknad av tydliga mål och i vissa fall även då dessa mål inte nått ut till de anställda.

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