In the current era of student accountability, coupled with high-stakes testing, schools have focused on the alignment of standardized curriculums and assessments. However, developing standardized grading practices are still under examination. Grading serves as an important responsibility, yet many teachers still find the process a challenge of determining which academic and non-academic factors correctly represent student achievement. This qualitative study was designed to examine the grading factors teachers consider when determining student final grades. Middle school language arts teachers from one mid-sized suburban school district in Virginia participated in qualitative interviews. The interviews addressed the following topics: (1) the purposes of grades, (2) the grading factors teachers consider when they grade, (3) the teachers’ influences in determining their practices, and (4) how teachers’ grading practices relate to measurement theory. Overall results in the areas of the purpose of grades, the use of academic and non-academic factors, teachers’ influences, the use of formative and summative assessments, and the need for professional development are consistent with the literature. With respect to how teachers’ practices relate to measurement theory, the findings are consistent with the literature from previous studies. This suggests that although measurement theory experts recommend that achievement factors should be the only factors that determine student grades, the results of this study indicate that teachers use a mixture of variables in determining student grades, known as hodgepodge grading. Recommendations for practice include teacher reflection on determining why they grade, becoming familiar with measurement theory recommendations in terms of using academic factors that measure student achievement, how to use non-academic factors in other ways to support student learning, and providing staff development in the area of grading practices and how practices support measurement standards.

This descriptive, non-experimental, quantitative study was designed to answer the broad question, “What do grades mean?” Core academic subject middle school teachers from one large, suburban school district in Virginia were administered an electronic survey that asked them to report on aspects of their grading practices and assessment methods for one class taught during the 2008-2009 school year. The survey addressed the following topics: 1) primary purposes for grades, 2) attitudes toward grading, 3) assessment method, and 4) grading practices. Additionally, the study examined the relationship between teachers’ reported assessment and grading methods and student achievement. Overall results and results disaggregated by subject area, grade level, and student ability level suggest that teachers are consistent in what they consider the primary purposes for grades. The vast majority indicated that grades should communicate student levels of mastery of content and skills. However, sizable percentages of teachers reported that they also considered non-academic indicators such as effort, attendance, and paying attention in class when determining student grades, suggesting a lack of alignment between their reported beliefs and practice. The study examined the extent to which teachers’ reported grading and assessment practices were consistent with those recommended in the literature on measurement and assessment. The study findings are consistent with those of findings from previous studies suggesting that teachers engage in “hodgepodge grading,” a practice which incorporates non-academic factors into student grades. The results also show that teachers use a variety of assessment methods and types of questions when measuring student achievement. The results indicate that projects, student exhibits, essays, inclusion of zeros, and extra credit were associated with higher levels of student achievement. Conversely, norm-referencing, classwork, participation, and matching were negatively correlated with student grades and test scores.

The majority of the research on grading practices thus far examines teachers' perceived grading practices through Likert-type surveys and vignettes regarding generic students. This study is unique because it proposes a more systematic method of qualitative inquiry to examine how teachers perceive grading on an individual student basis by asking questions regarding specific student performance/behavior on a sample of graded course tasks. No available study has focused on individual students in such a way. The overarching focus of the study is to examine actual students' data in relationship to their respective teacher's beliefs and practices.The purpose of this study is to examine the degree to which four sources of evidence: (1) course descriptions and policies (teacher); (2) grading beliefs (vignettes); (3) perceived grading practices (Likert-scale); (4) student characteristics (student) converge from a qualitative perspective.Fifteen high school teachers from four school districts completed an online grading questionnaire. The Wiley Grading Questionnaire (WGQ) consists of two main parts: (1) course policies and student characteristics; and (2) general grading beliefs. Part I requires teachers' gradebooks and syllabi. Part II measures teacher beliefs and perceived grading practices using Brookhart's (1993) grading vignettes, a 19-item 6-point Likert-scale survey adapted from McMillan (2001), and a combination of open-ended and forced-choice items on the WGQ.Teachers considered non-achievement variables more in their grading decisions in response to the vignettes than they reported in the other sources of evidence. Non-achievement factor considerations were more evident in the effort scenarios; namely a low-ability/low-achiever bias. The vignettes provided the highest level of abstraction, but they largely categorized teachers as either excluding non-achievement factors or including them for certain types of students, usually the low ability or low achiever. Further descriptions and implications are discussed.

Doctor of Philosophy / Curriculum and Instruction Programs / Sherri Martinie / This study examined the impact grading policies have on students’ mindsets in urban Midwestern middle schools. The components of this quasi-experimental, causal comparative survey research relied on the grading policies in place at the school level and the students’ reporting of their mindset. Data was collected using a questionnaire containing eight Likert-type questions from the Implicit Theories of Intelligence scale (Dweck, 2006), as well as additional questions seeking the students’ perceptions of grading practices implemented in their buildings. Descriptive statistics, frequencies, t-tests and ANOVA tests were run measuring the impact that a variety of perceived grading practices had on students’ mindset levels. The findings from the research demonstrated no statistically significant differences between the mindset levels of students from schools with different grading policies. Further analysis revealed inconsistencies between student perceptions of the grading practices and the schools’ actual stated grading policies. It appears standards based and traditional grading practices, although specifically stated at the building level, appear to have blended together in the large school district, which may have led to the inconclusive results. Of significance was the finding that students perceived to understand the meaning of their grade, even if it is misaligned with the schools’ policy, reported a growth mindset in comparison to students that reported they did not understand their grade. These findings begin to explore the impact grading practices have on students, especially during the transition from traditional to standards based grading. Further research is needed to fully examine the transition between grading practices and students’ perceptions of those policies. When students’ perceptions of the standards based grading policy do not align with the actual policy, it is assumed that it will have no impact on students’ mindset levels. Future research would seek to understand ways in which educators making a transition from traditional to standards based grading can seek clarity of policies, seek accuracy of implementation and monitor students’ perceptions in alignment with the policies and practices.

The purpose of this qualitative research was to understand the experience of selecting grading practices for a high school math or English classroom. There is no existing research related to understanding this phenomenon. This phenomenological study included three participants who were purposefully selected based on specific criteria: They must teach math or English in grades 9, 10, 11, or 12 and have at least three years of teaching experience. The participants were interviewed using videoconferencing software, and the interviews were recorded and transcribed. Open and axial coding was used to analyze the data. The theoretical framework applied for the interpretation of the findings was Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory. The participants shared thick, rich data from which eight themes emerged: Communication among stakeholders, student effort, value of learning, minimal education in grades and grading practices, external pressures, grades as motivators, teacher expectations, and reliability and validity in grading practices. Through this research, it became understood that there are many facets of this experience that are all inter-related. Based on the research recommendations were made for professional practice and future research to ignite positive change around this phenomenon.

Syftet med detta examensarbete är att undersöka hur lärare går tillväga då de planerar sin undervisning och då de sätter betyg i årskurs nio i fysik, samt vilka förutsättningar detta ger för rättvisa betyg. Vi ville med detta arbete fördjupa vår förstålese för och vår kunskap om hur man som lärare uppnår rättvis betygssättning. Vi är inte ute efter att generalisera eller göra några jämförelser mellan de utvalda lärarna, utan snarare att visa på likheter och skillnader i deras arbetssätt och tankegångar kring planering av undervisning och betygssättning. Vi har genomfört kvalitativa intervjuer med fyra utvalda lärare, verksamma på högstadiet. Det är deras uttalanden samt relevant litteratur som ligger till grund för detta arbete. Vi har kommit fram till att det som ligger till grund för lärarnas planering av undervisningen och betygssättningen skiljer sig åt och ger därmed olika förutsättningar för rättvisa betyg. / The purpose of this paper is to study how teachers do when they plan their teaching and when they mark in the ninth form in physics, and what conditions this gives of fair grades. Our intention with this paper was to deepen our understanding and knowledge of how teachers achieve fair grading. We are not out for generalizing or to do any comparisons between the chosen teachers, but rather to present similarities and differences in their way to work and their thoughts about planning of teaching and grading. We have accomplished qualitative interviewes with four chosen teachers, working at the senior level. It is their statements and relevant litterature that is the basis of this paper. We have shown that what is the basis of teacher’s planning of teaching and the grading differ and because of that also the conditions of fair grades.

The practice of grading students based on classroom performance has existed for centuries. Grading practices can look different depending on the division, school, or department. This study looked at lived experiences of school-based leaders around their preferred grading systems, how their preferences changed over time, and the impact their experiences and preferences had on the grading practices in their school building. School-based leaders were of interest because of the indirect impact they can have on teachers' grading practices (Hattie, 2012). Pre-service training around grading practices is minimal, leading educators to default to what they themselves experienced in schools. This can lead to negative outcomes for students as grading systems in use may measure more than just student achievement. The Transcendental Phenomenological methodology was utilized to gather data on school-based leaders' lived experiences. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with nine school-based leaders from rural, suburban, and urban areas within the Commonwealth of Virginia. This study found that traditional grading practices continued to dominate in public education and that practitioners are rarely provided professional development or knowledge on alternative grading practices. Colleges and universities should create coursework around grading practices for future practitioners and school divisions and schools should provide professional development around research-based grading practices for all practitioners. / Doctor of Education / Students receive grades when they complete assignments and assessments in their courses. Grading practices have been around for over 400 years. Grading practices look different depending on the division, school, principal, and teacher. This study investigated the lived experiences of high school principals around the type of grading practices they prefer, how their preferences changed over time, and the impact of their experiences on grading practices in the high schools they lead. Principals are of interest because they can impact the grading practices of teachers, ultimately impacting students in the classroom (Hattie, 2012). Prospective teachers rarely receive training on grading practices in their university programs, causing most new teachers to default to what they themselves experienced in schools. This can be problematic as grading systems utilized by teachers often grade more than student achievement, including student behaviors, student effort, and student ability levels. A qualitative study was used to gather data on principals' lived experiences. Nine principals from the Commonwealth of Virginia were interviewed through semi-structured interviews. Three principals were from rural areas, three from suburban areas, and three from urban areas. This study found that traditional grading practices dominated in public education. Additionally, this study found that teachers are rarely provided training around research-based grading practices. Colleges and universities should create classes around grading for future teachers, while school divisions and schools should provide training around research-based grading practices for all teachers and administrators.

Grading is one of the key components of modern pedagogy. Grades are primarily meant to be a method of communication, which is initiated by the owners of the pedagogy (instructors, school, etc.) and are received by various parties such as students: as feedback on their learning outcomes, parents, potential employers, other institutions, etc. However, traditional grading practices in wide use across institutions globally suffer from many problems and can prove to be a hindrance to students achieving their learning outcomes. Many of these practices do not have a backing in education and social research and suffer from various problems such as inherent bias, rewarding of behavior over skill or knowledge, increasing student anxiety, etc. In contrast, EGPs have been backed in research, follow a more open assessment method and have been shown to induce increased learning. Thus, to mitigate some of these problems, we employ Equitable Grading Practices (EGPs) in an introductory CS-1 course at Virginia Tech for the Fall 2023 and Spring 2024 semesters. In this thesis, we introduce these practices and evaluate student perceptions of them thereafter to answer research questions so that we may be able to refine these practices. We gather student experiences primarily through two instruments: a survey and one-on-one interviews. We describe these in detail and evaluate them through the use of statistics as well grounded theory analysis to be able to extract student perceptions of these grading practices. / Master of Science / Grading is a fundamental aspect of education, shaping not only student learning but also their future opportunities. Traditionally, grades are intended to communicate a student's performance to various stakeholders, including parents and potential employers. However, standard grading methods suffer for biases and promote anxiety among students, rather than truly reflecting their knowledge and skills. In an effort to address these issues, our research at Virginia Tech investigates the implementation of Equitable Grading Practices (EGPs) in an introductory computer science course. These practices, supported by educational research, emphasize a more transparent and inclusive approach to assessment, aiming to enhance learning rather than merely evaluate it. This thesis examines how students perceive these new grading practices through surveys and detailed interviews. Our goal is to understand their experiences and refine these methods to better support student achievement and well-being. This study not only offers insights into the impact of EGPs but also contributes to broader educational reforms aimed at fairer and more effective grading systems.

Equal and fair grading is crucial for the grading system to be perceived as legitimate by society and for the selection to higher education to be legally secure for the student. In a grading system where the teacher has a high degree of autonomy in the grading process, demands are placed on the teacher's integrity and professionalism. This systematic literature study examines which assessment and grading practices can strengthen equal and fair grading, and which difficulties may arise in the tension between the student's legal security and the teacher's professionalism. The study is based on an organizational justice theory with three different perspectives: distributive justice, procedural justice, and interpersonal justice. The main result of the study is that relational and caring assessment and grading practices, a collective interpretation of the grading criteria at national level, and high validity and reliability in the assessment method are strengthening for equal and fair grading. In addition, difficulties arise regarding teachers' assessment and grading practices when the teacher's role as grader is questioned, and the grading process is influenced by internal or external factors. This has consequences for the student's legal security since the teacher's professional judgment stands as the sole guardian of maintaining it. The conclusion is that grading systems that aspire to be equal and fair need principles for how the balance between individual and impartial assessments should be applied.