Introduction: An interconnected world is impelling workforce composition towards cultural heterogeneity. Since leadership is a cultural construct, leaders should display those styles that enable them to function effectively in culturally varied conditions. Cultural intelligence could assist leaders in this respect. Purpose: To investigate the role cultural intelligence plays in the leadership style (empowering and directive leadership) and leadership effectiveness domain, so as to aid leader selection and development. Method: A systematic review of the cultural intelligence literature, coupled with content and thematic analysis, allowed for the knowledge to be organised per the concept, definition and truth statement (validated hypotheses) elements of the general body of scientific knowledge framework. Correlation and regression analysis of cross-sectional survey data, from 1140 respondents, were used to assess relationships between leader cultural intelligence, leadership styles (empowering and directive) and leadership effectiveness. Results: Nine concepts associated with, and 24 different definitions of cultural intelligence, were identified. Sixty percent of hypotheses on cultural intelligence have been confirmed as truth statements. The relationship between leader cultural intelligence and empowering leadership demonstrated a large practical effect. This relationship was underpinned primarily by metacognitive and motivational cultural intelligence. The relationship with directive leadership carried a medium practical effect, and was strongest at the motivational and cognitive cultural intelligence levels. The part played by subordinates’ cultural identity in the display of empowering and directive leadership by culturally intelligent leaders was insignificant; rather, leader cultural intelligence was the dominant informant of these leadership styles. Finally, leader cultural intelligence did not impact the relationship between empowering leadership and leadership effectiveness. Although it did negatively affect the directive leadership and leadership effectiveness relationship, the moderation had no practical effect. Conclusions: The concepts associated with cultural intelligence are: accomplishment, culture, expatriates, experience, fit, intelligence, motivation, supervision and training. Cultural intelligence definitions remain mostly based on those of the seminal authors. The majority of truths cover just six themes. Leadership style (empowering and directive) is a function of leader cultural intelligence. Although leader cultural intelligence extends beyond subordinates’ cultural identity in predicting empowering and directive leadership, it does not influence their relationships with leadership effectiveness. / Graduate School of Business Leadership (SBL) / D.B.L.

Die studie fokus op etnisiteit gedurende die oorgang na 'n nuwe politieke bedeling in Suid-Afrika. Op teoretiese vlak is aandag gegee aan ideologiese strominge; dimensies van etnisiteit; die omskrywing van etnisiteit en die onderskeid tussen etnisiteit en ander vorme van groepidentifisering. Etnisiteit is verder op sosiaalsielkundige vlak ontleed, terwyl die invloed van ekonomiese, politieke en staatkundige faktore verreken is. Kontekstuele faktore tydens die ondersoek wat resultate kon be'invloed, is ook bestudeer. Die empiriese komponent het 'n vraelysopname in die Pretoria-WitwatersrandVereeniging- gebied (Gauteng) behels. Onderhoude is gedurende Januarie en Februarie 1994 voltooi, aan die vooraand van 'n nuwe politieke bedeling. Ewekansige steekproewe is getrek van 466 swartmense en 460 witmense (347 Afrikaanssprekendes en 113 Engelssprekendes). Patrone van etniese, staatkundige en rasse-identifisering; die betekenis van etnisiteit vir die individu; persepsies van die situasie van groepe en faktore wat etniese identifisering kon be"invloed, is gedek. Die konstrukgeldigheid en dimensies van skale is met hoofkomponent- en hooffaktorontledings ondersoek. Variansie-ontledings het verskille tussen groepe ge'identifiseer, terwyl meervoudige regressie-ontledings voorspellers van etniese identifisering uitgelig het. Belangrike bevindings is die volgende: * Etnisiteit was 'n belangrike bron van groepidentifisering vir sowel swartmense as witmense. 'n Sielkundige dimensie - etniese identiteit - wat verband hou met trots op en lojaliteit teenoor die onsgroep was onderskeibaar. Sterker etniese identifisering het by alle groepe gekorreleer met identiteitsverwerwing; betrokkenheid by en eksplorasie ten opsigte van die onsgroep; minder ambivalente gevoelens oor onsgroeplidmaatskap en 'n drang om onsgroepbelange te beskerm. Sterker etniese identifisering het by Afrikaanssprekende witmense met 'n positiewe selfbeeld en by swartmense met 'n negatiewe selfbeeld gekorreleer. Laer onderwyskwalifikasies het by Afrikaanssprekende witmense met sterker etniese identifisering gekorreleer. Die teenoorgestelde het gegeld vir Afrikaanssprekendes met hoer onderwyskwalifikasies. Persepsies van bedreiging het by Afrikaanssprekende witmense met sterker etniese identifisering verband gehou. Sterker etniese identifisering het by alle groepe 6f met negatiewe tussengroepgedrag 6f met negatiewe tussengroephoudings gekorreleer. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat op alle terreine rekening gehou moet word met die etniese heterogeniteit van die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing. / The study focuses on ethnicity during the transition to a new political dispensation in South Africa. At the theoretical level, attention was given to ideological trends; dimensions of ethnicity; the description of ethnicity and the distinction between ethnicity and other forms of group identification. Ethnicity was furthermore analyzed at the socio-psychological level, while the influence of economic, political and constitutional factors was also considered. Contextual factors during the investigation which could have influenced the results were also analyzed. The empirical component comprised a questionnaire survey in the PretoriaWitwatersrand- Vereeniging area (Gauteng). Interviews were conducted during January and February 1994, on the eve of a new political dispensation. Randomly selected samples were drawn of 466 blacks and 460 whites (347 Afrikaansspeaking and 113 English-speaking). Patterns of ethnic, national and race identification; the meaning of ethnicity for the individual; perceptions of the situation of groups and factors that could influence ethnic identification were covered. The construct validity and dimensions of scales were investigated by means of main component and main factor analyses. Variance analyses identified differences between groups, whereas multiple regression analyses were used to determine predictors of ethnic identification. Important findings were the following: * Ethnicity was an important source of group identification for blacks as well as whites. A psychological dimension - ethnic identity - that related to pride in and loyalty to the ingro11p was highlighted. Stronger ethnic identification correlated among all groups with identity formation; involvement with and exploration regarding the ingroup; less ambivalent feelings about ingroup membership and an urge to protect ingroup interests. Stronger ethnic identification correlated among the Afrikaans-speaking whites with a positive self-image and among the blacks with a negative selfimage. Lower educational qualifications correlated among Afrikaans-speaking whites with stronger ethnic identification. The opposite applied to Afrikaansspeaking whites with higher educational qualifications. Perceived threats were associated with stronger ethnic identification among Afrikaans-speaking whites. Stronger ethnic identification correlated among all groups either with negative intergroup behaviour or with negative intergroup attitudes. It is concluded that ethnic heterogeneity should be taken into account in all spheres of the South African society. / Department of Psychology / D. Lit. et Phil (Psychology)

The moderation function of in-group status position on the relationship between group-based guilt and reparation intention was tested in a 2 (group-based guilt: low versus high) x 2 (status loss: weak versus strong) factorial between-subjects design, using an online survey software program named Qualtrics. The target population was white South African undergraduate students born after 1988 and registered at the University of South Africa. The results of the first Experiment confirmed the hypothesis, that the relationship between group-based guilt and reparation intention becomes less significant the more participants perceive a loss of status for their in-group. However, the hypothesis could not be confirmed in Experiment 2. The results are presented and discussed in detail / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Social dominance theory (SDT) and Social identity theory (SIT) are theoretical frameworks that have been conceptualised and examined in societies that predominantly have stable intergroup relations. The present study sought to examine both theoretical frameworks in a context that is undergoing social change. Three cross-sectional studies were conducted amongst black and white students from a South African University. Results indicated that there was no difference in the desire for group-based inequality (i.e. social dominance orientation, SDO) amongst groups affected by social change, when group status was measured subjectively. Yet, when group status was determined sociologically, dominant group members had significantly higher SDO levels. Furthermore, results indicated that the perception of social change had a conditional effect on the relationship between SDO and support for affirmative action amongst white participants, in that when white participants perceived higher in-group status loss, higher SDO levels predicted opposition towards affirmative action. Racial in-group identification had a conditional effect on the relationship between perceived social change and support for affirmative action amongst black participants; when black participants had higher racial in-group identification, greater perception of social change predicted support for affirmative action. Lastly, amongst black participants, hierarchy-attenuating legitimising myths had a conditional effect on the relationship between SDO and support for affirmative action. Specifically, when colourblindness or Ubuntu were endorsed, higher SDO predicted support for affirmative action. However, when these hierarchy-attenuating legitimising myths were rejected, higher SDO predicted opposition towards affirmative action. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

South Africa has experienced a notable increase in adolescent drug use during the country’s transition from apartheid to democracy (Central Drug Authority [CDA], 2006). These findings are verified by epidemiological studies and two national youth risk behaviour surveys, highlighting the need for effective drug prevention interventions. Whilst drug use spans across age, gender and social strata, the rapid increase in both legal and illicit drug use among adolescents in the Northern Areas communities of Port Elizabeth has been particularly pronounced. The South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU) statistics, which reflects on racial demographics in accordance with the Population Registration Act of 1950 (South Africa, 1950), reports that, in the year 2011, the ‘Coloured’ population constituted 62 percent of those individuals seeking treatment for drug abuse, compared to 15 percent ‘African’ treatment seekers in Port Elizabeth (Dada, Plüddemann, Parry, Bhana, Vawda & Fourie, 2012:44). Furthermore, methamphetamine use by persons under the age of 20 years in Port Elizabeth increased fivefold in a three-year period, i.e. from 7 percent in 2008 to 39 percent in 2011 (Dada et al., 2012), with the ‘Coloured’ population group accounting for the majority of methamphetamine users. These statistics reinforce a long-standing racial stereotype that associates ‘Coloured’ racial identity with an enhanced susceptibility to drug use. The National Drug Master Plan (South Africa, 2012a), and the Prevention of and Treatment for Substance Abuse Act (Act no 70 of 2008) propose that drug prevention programmes should address the values, perceptions, expectations and beliefs that the community associates with drug abuse (South Africa, 2008b). This view emphasises the importance of drug preventions interventions that are culturally sensitive and contextually relevant. The current study was guided by two conceptual frameworks, i.e. the Social Constructionist Framework and the Ecological Risk/Protective Resilience Framework, and focused on the Northern Areas of Port Elizabeth, a historically marginalised community inhabited by a predominantly ‘Coloured’ indigenous/ethnic group. The goal of the study was to enhance understanding of the socio-cultural meaning attributed to cultural identity, drug use, non-use and drug prevention in the Northern Areas of Port Elizabeth, with the view to developing guidelines for drug prevention interventions that are culturally sensitive and contextually relevant. The following objectives were formulated in order to achieve the goal of the study: • To explore adolescent narratives regarding the constructs ‘Coloured’, drug use, non-use and drug prevention programmes of three distinct groups of adolescents (drug users, non-users, and TADA peer mentors) from the Northern Areas. • To explore and describe the social service practitioners’ (social workers and social auxiliary workers’) constructions of drug use, non-use and drug abuse prevention in relation to adolescents from the Northern Areas, and how such constructions inform the drug prevention services rendered to adolescents from these communities. • To review the data collected from the adolescent narratives and the social service practitioners’ reflections on their drug prevention programmes against existing theory and models for drug prevention. • To synthesise the above information with a view to developing guidelines for culturally sensitive drug prevention programmes relevant and responsive to the specific social constructions of adolescents from the Northern Areas. A qualitative research approach, located in a narrative tradition of inquiry research design, was employed to achieve the goal of the study (Riessman, 2008). The study was conducted in two phases. The first phase involved an empirical study with the four sample groups (i.e. adolescent drug users, adolescent non-drug users, Teenagers against Drug Abuse [TADA] peer mentors and social service professionals (i.e. social workers and social auxiliary workers)). Phase two involved the co-construction of the practice guidelines for culturally sensitive and contextually relevant drug prevention interventions. Phase one started with the informal exploration of community stakeholders’ views on the identified research problem and the process of gaining access to the research population. Several gatekeepers (i.e. teachers, social workers, the Families Against Drugs [FAD] Support Group representatives, a minister of religion and a community stakeholder) were engaged to assist in recruiting participants from the four sample groups. A non-probability purposive sampling method was employed to purposively recruit 29 adolescent non-drug users and ten adolescent peer mentors (via the TADA Programme at one school). The same sampling method, followed by a snowball sampling technique, was employed to recruit the two remaining sample groups of ten adolescent drug users (in the recovery process) and nine social workers and social auxiliary workers respectively. The sample sizes were determined by the principle of data saturation.The data generation method used in respect of the non-users took the form of semi-structured written narratives, administered in a group context during school time, followed by a second round of data generation. The life-grid (Wilson, Cunningham-Burley, Bancroft, Backett-Milburn & Masters, 2007:144), a qualitative visual tool for mapping important life events, was employed to guide the co-construction of the biographical narratives generated during the individual semi-structured interviews with the sample of adolescent drug users. Focus group interviews were used to enhance an understanding of the peer mentors and social service practitioners’ views on the construct ‘Coloured’ and their existing drug prevention programmes. Each of the individual and focus group interviews was audio-recorded, transcribed and complemented by the field notes. Informal data gathering occurred through participant observation of two drug prevention programmes, attendance of a FAD Support Group meeting, and interviews with community volunteers and the South African Police Services (SAPS) Youth Development Forum. Both the content and the context of the narratives were analysed to arrive at the research themes, sub-themes and categories. The content of the narratives was analysed by employing categorical content analysis, whilst the form of the narratives (i.e. how the stories were told) was analysed by using the socio-cultural approach to narrative analysis (Grbich, 2007:130). The journey metaphor emerged from the adolescent drug users’ narratives, depicting a prototypical storyline of a drug use journey, starting with experimentation and culminating in abuse and dependence for some and an early exit from the journey for others. The conclusions that can be drawn from these findings illuminate key protective factors and processes at a multisystemic level that can be strengthened to enhance the adolescents’ resistance to drug use and/or delay the onset of use. Embedded in the participants’ narration of the drug use journey were nuances relating to internalised stereotypes of ‘White’ supremacy and ‘Coloured’ inferiority as an explanatory framework for venturing onto and prolonging the journey.The two themes that emerged during the process of content and narrative analysis of the qualitative data (from both adolescent drug users and non-users) were as follows: Constructing drug use as a ‘Coloured’ phenomenon and reconstructing ‘Coloured’ identity; Risk and protective factors located at individual, family, peer, school, community and societal domains. The four themes that emerged during the data analysis of the peer mentors and social service practitioners’ narratives were as follows: Construction of ‘Coloured’ identity; socio-cultural meaning construction about the reasons for drug use amongst adolescents from the Northern Areas; description of drug prevention services rendered in the Northern Areas; and reflection on barriers to rendering drug prevention interventions.

The Karretjie People, or Cart People are a peripatetic community and are descendants of the KhoeKhoen and San, the earliest inhabitants of the Karoo region in South Africa. As a landless and disempowered community they are dependent upon others for food and other basic necessities specifically, and other resources generally. Compared to children in South Africa generally, the Karretjie children are in every sense of the most severely deprived. Their fathers are by and large sheep-shearers, often their only specialised skill, and which is primarily required only on demand and on an irregular and/or seasonal basis. The children’s mothers as keepers of the karretjie (cart) overnight shack, with other adult caretakers, are without predictable income for most of the year. The service that the adult men deliver to the farming community necessitates continuous spatial mobility and is made possible by a cart and donkeys, which also enable them to adapt to changing circumstances. High levels of spatial mobility as well as economic demands on individual domestic units result in inventive utilisation of scarce resources and entails, amongst others, in children oscillating between different karretjie (cart) units.

The Karretjie People, or Cart People are a peripatetic community and are descendants of the KhoeKhoen and San, the earliest inhabitants of the Karoo region in South Africa. As a landless and disempowered community they are dependent upon others for food and other basic necessities specifically, and other resources generally. Compared to children in South Africa generally, the Karretjie children are in every sense of the most severely deprived. Their fathers are by and large sheep-shearers, often their only specialised skill, and which is primarily required only on demand and on an irregular and/or seasonal basis. The children’s mothers as keepers of the karretjie (cart) overnight shack, with other adult caretakers, are without predictable income for most of the year. The service that the adult men deliver to the farming community necessitates continuous spatial mobility and is made possible by a cart and donkeys, which also enable them to adapt to changing circumstances. High levels of spatial mobility as well as economic demands on individual domestic units result in inventive utilisation of scarce resources and entails, amongst others, in children oscillating between different karretjie (cart) units.

This thesis interrogates the dynamics of urbanisation, gender and migration in contemporary Johannesburg through the voices and images of migrant women from the rest of the African continent, now living in Johannesburg. By revealing the lives of a population group that is often hidden from view, it provides details of women’s migration to Johannesburg, and their everyday encounters in the host city. Using these experiences, it sheds light on contemporary migration and urbanisation processes on the continent, expanding our knowledge of the contours of power that shape urban life in Johannesburg and elsewhere. Using the metaphor of the “border” or “borderlands” this thesis explores how women negotiate, cross and remain “in between” the multiple physical, social and imagined borders they encounter in the city. It finds that analyses that read the city through class relationships and capital accumulation do not give adequate weight to the multiple identities and forms of solidarity that exist in cities. Women’s narratives reveal that while their class is an important identity, other identities such as ethnicity, nationality and gender also powerfully shape solidarity and modes of belonging in the city. Moreover, state-centric governance frameworks that have dominated urban policy and scholarly work on the continent are often blinded to the ways in which urban dweller’s actions shift our understanding of the nature and character of state power. Women’s encounters with the state reveal the multiple regimes of power that constitute the city, and the ways in which these subvert, fragment, and yet at times reinforce state power in unpredictable ways. The epistemological approach and findings of this research bring to the fore broader questions around the paradigmatic lenses used to read, interpret and understand African cities. Dominant paradigms tend to draw on western models of cities in ways that undermine African cities’ empirical realities and theoretical potential. For as long as scholars and policy makers fail to see African urbanity in its own terms rather than in relation to how cities elsewhere have evolved, we will continue to miss critical socio-political and economic dynamics that are shaping urbanisation in the twenty first century. / Sociology / D. Phil. (Sociology))

Since 2012 more than 295 676 migrants have arrived in South Africa. Somalis form one of the most visible migrant minorities in the country. Since various studies have been conducted into the mistreatment of migrants and its psychological effects, this study aimed to investigate the reasons that led to the resilience of the Somali community residing in Fordsburg/Mayfair, Johannesburg despite the challenges they encountered. The sample for the study was selected using the purposive sampling technique. Data were collected through the use of face-to-face semi-structured interviews and subsequently analysed following Colaizzi’s (1978) descriptive phenomenological method of data analysis. The findings of the study show that the participants experienced several challenges en route to South Africa and once they reached the country. Their resilience can be attributed to reasons such as individual determination to achieve change, the Somali communal culture, religion and spirituality, the family spirit, gender role adaptation and hard work. / Psychology / M.A. (Research Consultation)

This thesis interrogates the dynamics of urbanisation, gender and migration in contemporary Johannesburg through the voices and images of migrant women from the rest of the African continent, now living in Johannesburg. By revealing the lives of a population group that is often hidden from view, it provides details of women’s migration to Johannesburg, and their everyday encounters in the host city. Using these experiences, it sheds light on contemporary migration and urbanisation processes on the continent, expanding our knowledge of the contours of power that shape urban life in Johannesburg and elsewhere. Using the metaphor of the “border” or “borderlands” this thesis explores how women negotiate, cross and remain “in between” the multiple physical, social and imagined borders they encounter in the city. It finds that analyses that read the city through class relationships and capital accumulation do not give adequate weight to the multiple identities and forms of solidarity that exist in cities. Women’s narratives reveal that while their class is an important identity, other identities such as ethnicity, nationality and gender also powerfully shape solidarity and modes of belonging in the city. Moreover, state-centric governance frameworks that have dominated urban policy and scholarly work on the continent are often blinded to the ways in which urban dweller’s actions shift our understanding of the nature and character of state power. Women’s encounters with the state reveal the multiple regimes of power that constitute the city, and the ways in which these subvert, fragment, and yet at times reinforce state power in unpredictable ways. The epistemological approach and findings of this research bring to the fore broader questions around the paradigmatic lenses used to read, interpret and understand African cities. Dominant paradigms tend to draw on western models of cities in ways that undermine African cities’ empirical realities and theoretical potential. For as long as scholars and policy makers fail to see African urbanity in its own terms rather than in relation to how cities elsewhere have evolved, we will continue to miss critical socio-political and economic dynamics that are shaping urbanisation in the twenty first century. / Sociology / D. Phil. (Sociology))