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Residential camping has long been used as a tool to reach and teach educational concepts to youth. Since the founding of the first organized residential camp in 1823 at Round Hill School's Summer Camp in Massachusetts, private and public organizations have used camping as a means to teach youth their respective missions and goals. Although a relative newcomer in the camping business when compared to other agencies and groups, 4-H has been involved in camping since the first county camp was conducted in 1915. Virginia has long been in the business of 4-H camping, reaching thousands of youth throughout the years on an annual basis. Now, ranked third nationally in total numbers of youth attending 4-H camping on an annual basis, the 4-H mission "...assisting youth, and adults working with those youth, to gain additional knowledge, life skills, and attitudes that further their development as self-directing, contributing, and productive members of society" continues to be carried out through the residential camping program. The purpose of this dissertation is to describe, record and analyze the concept that provided the foundation for the Virginia 4-H camping program becoming a reality of the 4-H educational centers. It includes the early history of the camping movement in the United States, the beginnings of the 4-H club program in the United States and Virginia, and 4-H involvement in reaching and involving youth audiences through camping programs. The population for this study consisted of early pioneers in the 4-H camping program representing Virginia Cooperative Extension administrators and extension agents, camp staffs, and campers from both white and African-American camping programs, as separate 4-H camping programs were conducted. A systematic document research and structured interviews of the early pioneers was conducted to reach defensible conclusions about the establishment, operation, and purpose of the 4- H camping movement in Virginia. The outcomes of this study are fourfold. First, the study serves to document the organized camping movement in the United States and the beginnings of 4-H. Second, the study explores the early beginnings of the 4-H camping movement in the country with the national 4-H camping movement. Third, the study examined the persons, events, founding and early development of the 4-H camping program in Virginia, including the separate white and African-American camping programs for Whites and African-Americans. Fourth, the study documented the history of Virginia's six 4-H educational centers. The study endeavors to contribute to the body of knowledge concerning the history of the 4-H movement in Virginia. / Ph. D.

Motivated by field work (Chapter 1), this thesis investigates how current models of interpersonal communication, based on dyadic (or pairwise) communication (Chapter 2), apply to different sized discussion groups. Following a pilot study (Chapter 3), a series of five and ten person experimental discussion groups were compared (Chapter 4).Consistent with the Collaborative Model of communication, in the five person groups participants' understanding of what was agreed in their discussion was influenced by who they spoke with. In the ten person groups, as predicted by the Autonomous Models of communication, participants were influenced by the group's dominant speaker. Next, the communication taking place in the different sized discussions was compared (Chapter 5). This revealed that the communication taking place in the five person group resembled a dialogue, whereas in the ten person group it resembled a monologue. Finally, the difference in mode of communication is explained in terms of how speakers in the two sizes of group design their utterances for different audiences (Chapter 6).

Deep uncertainty exists when there is disagreement on how to model inter-relationships between variables in the external/controllable and internal/controllable environment; how to specify probability distributions to represent threats; and/or how to value various consequences. The evaluation of strategic options under deep uncertainty involves structuring the decision problem, specifying options to address that problem, and assessing which options appear to consistently perform well by achieving desirable levels of performance across a range of futures. The integrated use of scenarios and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) provides a framework for managing these issues, and is an area of growing interest. This thesis aims to explore such integrated use, suggesting a new method for combining MCDA and scenario planning, and to test such proposal through a multi-method research strategy involving case study, behavioural experiment and simulation. The proposal reflects the three key areas of confluence of scenarios and MCDA in the decision making process. The first is based on systematic generation of a larger scenario set, focused on extreme outcomes, for defining the boundaries of the decision problem. The second proposal is based on providing less scenario detail than the traditional narrative, in favour of explicitly considering how uncertainties affect positive and negative outcomes on key objectives. This backward logic seeks to better address the challenge of estimating the consequences of each option and the trade-offs involved. Finally, it is proposed that option selection be based on a concern for robustness through cost-equivalent regret. The empirical findings reflect that the key benefit of integration appears to be a mechanism to improve the efficiency of elicitation and the robustness of options. However, effective application of scenarios and MCDA requires awareness of the desired degree of accuracy required and risk attitude of decision makers.

This historical study attempts a thorough revision of some current assumptions about Fielding's moral 'philosophy'. It endorses the orthodox view that Latitudinarian Anglicanism was a decisive influence, but questions whether the Anglican moralists can usefully be described as exponents of 'benevolism' - their sermons are distinguished most notably by an overriding concern with the inculcation of prudence, and by persistent hortatory appeals to self-interest. 'Prudentialism' is arguably a better term for Latitudinarian ethics, and indeed for that dimension of Fielding's work which is attributable to Anglican influence - above all, the reiterated emphasis on the coincidence of virtue and interest. The Latitudinarian connexion is important. But there were other formative influences, including the 'negative' influence of philosophies with which Fielding disagreed, such as ethical rationalism and psychological egoism. The moral 'philosophy' of Tom Jones is not a rigid conceptual structure: it is a dynamic, and sometimes polemical, response to contemporary ethical debate. This study therefore analyzes Fielding's moral vocabulary by relating it to various other contemporary moral vocabularies. Making constant, detailed reference to chosen contextual sources, it explores Fielding's views on a range of 'live' moral and moral-psychological issues: on the functions of prudence and the grounds of prudential obligation; on the relations between prudential obligation and other moral duties; on benevolence, self-love, and 'disinterestedness'; on the relative status of 'private' and 'public' virtues; on the moral functions of reason and the passions; and on the psychology of moral judgment. This study suggests that Fielding's writings embody a complex and uneasy synthesis of two historically divergent ethical traditions: in his didactic emphasis on interest and his concern with the enlightenment of self-love, Fielding is a literary heir of Anglican prudentialism; in his esteem for the 'heart', he can be seen as an ally of the newer 'sentimental' school of Shaftesbury, Hutcheson and Hume.

The man-boy sexual encounter, or male-child sexual abuse (MCSA), is a widespread, persistent social practice. The causes, or aetiology, of sex offending against children has been the topic of sustained research and theory for several decades (e.g. Finkelhor, 1984) and there is now a considerable literature on the impact of such activity on male victims (Spiegel, 2003). Recently, some research has enabled the stories of abused males to be considered in detail (e.g. Hunter, 1990a) and some social theorists have emphasized the importance of this endeavour (Plummer, 1995). Sexual exploitation and child sexual abuse (CSA) is a relatively recent addition to the study of sport (Brackenridge, 1994) and so far there has been no sustained attention given to the sexual subjection of the male child. This thesis develops the literature on sexual exploitation in sport by examining the experiences of men sexually abused in the context of sport. Feminist research has identified the gendered nature of sex offending and the role of patriarchy in this practice (e.g. Kelly, 1988) and similar, contextualised arguments have been made by scholars of sport (Brackenridge, 2001). However, explanatory accounts of CSA are deeply contested and psychological perspectives dominate the debate (Ward et al., 2006). Therefore, in considering MCSA in sport, a fundamental issue is how the sexual abuse of children is to be understood. This thesis draws upon the work of social theorist, Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002), and considers MCSA in sport through his theoretical framework. Utilising this framework, I develop an account of the relation between organised male-sport and the sexual abuse of boys where the actions of social agents are deeply embedded within the socio-cultural context. Ultimately, I offer a radical critique of sport, and the man-boy relation that lies at its heart.

This thesis focuses on ‘school shootings’ in the United States. Examined here are the news media constructions and public reactions to such incidents, as they pertain to scholarly conceptualisations of fear, moral panics and vulnerability; as well policy responses relating to emergency management in educational institutions and gun-related legislative proposals and actions. Current literature in the field defines ‘school shootings’ as a particular type of ‘spree’ or ‘mass’ killing, involving the murder or attempted murder of students and staff at an education institution. This phenomenon is most prolific in the United States. Two case studies were selected from a list of possible incidents based on their high profile news media coverage, policy impact and infamous natures. The examples used are the school shootings at Columbine High School, Colorado (1999) and Virginia Polytechnic University, Virginia (2007); although the developments provoked by the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School, Connecticut shooting are noted throughout. The objectives of the research are: exploring the effect of my two case studies on reshaping or entrenching current moral panic and fear debates; whether the two shootings have transformed emergency management and communication practices; the role that fear plays in the concealed carry on campus movement which arose after the Virginia Tech incident; surmising about which gun-related legislative actions are possible in future. Employed here is a theoretical framework pertaining to moral panics, fear of crime risk management, and framing of news media and policy. My methodological approach was qualitative in nature. A total of 14 interviews were conducted with experts in gun violence prevention, and emergency management and communication. Ethnographic research was carried out in the form of participant observations at a school safety symposium and a gun reform activism event. Content and critical discourse analyses were employed to assess 728 news media articles, 286 letters to the editor, comments from 32 YouTube videos, 14 policy documents and 10 public opinion polls. My original contribution to knowledge is the examination of policies that have not received much scholarly attention to date: emergency management plans, training, operation and communications to deal with the possibility of a school shooting incident occurring; the ‘concealed carry on campus’ movement, where students lobby to carry firearms in higher education institutions as a way to negate potential threats. Relatively uncharted territory in fear of crime research was embarked upon with an examination of YouTube comments relating to: concerns about attending school; insecurities about the ability of law enforcement to offer protection in a school shooting scenario. To offer a predictive angle to the research, the current public sentiments, framing strategies being utilised by interest groups, and Supreme Court rulings shaping the future of gun reform were debated. Further avenues for school shooting research are provided.

The difficulty of reconciling Hume's use and endorsement of sceptical arguments and conclusions with his constructive project of founding 'a science of man' is perhaps the central interpretive puzzle of A Treatise of Human Nature. Hume has been interpreted as an entirely unmitigated sceptic about induction, causation, personal identity and the external world. His sceptical arguments emerge as apart of a naturalistic programme to explain fundamental human beliefs, but seem to call into serious question the viability of this programme. This work is an attempt to understand the relationship between Hume's sceptical arguments and his Newtonian ambition of founding a science of human nature. It defends two main theses: that Hume's sceptical arguments appear as steps in a more general and systematic argument the conclusion of which involves a causal explanation of scepticism itself; and that the scepticism of Book One of the Treatise is to be seen not as unmitigatedly destructive but as a part of the necessary preparation for the more robustly Newtonian investigations of Books Two and Three. Hume's sceptical arguments support the general conception he has of philosophy, and of its role and value, which emerges in the conclusion to the first book. I show that Hume's exposition of this conception is the conclusion of a complex and systematic dialectic. The work is divided into four chapters. In Chapter One, I examine Hume's commitment to the experimental method of reasoning and formulate a number of general theoretical principles which, I argue, guide the Newtonian investigations of the Treatise. I also assess Hume's understanding of what constitutes a good or adequate explanation in science. Chapter Two considers Part III of Book One. Here I emphasise the reflexiveness of Hume's extended account of the causal relation, acknowledging the constructive programme which leads Hume to formulate a set of normative rules for telling what is the cause of what. The remaining two chapters deal with Hume's main sceptical arguments concerning the attribution of identity over time to bodies and persons.

This thesis investigates the internationalisation characteristics of transnational entrepreneurial firms (TEFs) that are owned by the first-generation, immigrant entrepreneurs maintaining business arrangements at least in their home and host countries. Although there has been a growing recognition in the literature calling for an emergent research agenda on this emerging type of internationalised small- and medium-sized enterprises, there have been few empirical efforts on TEF internationalisation. It is thus still unknown whether TEFs internationalise differently compared to indigenous entrepreneurial firms (IEFs) that are natively-grown international entrepreneurial firms in the TEF’s host country. Using the resource-based view (RBV), this study seeks to fill this gap in the international entrepreneurship and transnational entrepreneurship literatures by gaining insights into the internationalisation of TEFs, its antecedents and effects on international performance through a comparison of TEF/IEF activities. Based on an RBV-oriented conceptual framework encompassing internationalisation antecedents, dimensions and outcomes of the firm, the research explores and answers the research questions: What drives TEFs to internationalise, how do they internationalise, and what is their international performance (compared with IEFs)? To accomplish the aim of exploring TEF internationalisation with comparison to IEF internationalisation, this work uses a qualitative approach based on eight case studies. Case data are collected from sixteen semi-structured interviews with CEOs and senior directors of Chinese TEFs and IEFs from Canada and the UK, and archival data including company history, websites, media reports, and financial information. Additional interviews with three business consultant experts are supplemented. Findings largely confirm that TEFs internationalise differently than IEFs. Compared with IEFs, TEFs possess a higher level of entrepreneurial orientation (manifested by a combination of high levels of proactiveness, innovativeness, and risk taking), network proclivity (evident in the shared cultural dimension of social capital) and international motivation. High levels of mixed embeddedness also facilitate TEF internationalisation. In general, while TEFs are more probable to be fast rather than incremental internationalisers to enter their home country market, geographic distance plays an important role in their international market selection, i.e. geographic distance positively affects TEFs’ proclivity to get into the key market of their industry. For TEFs, psychic distance plays a less prominent role in shaping their internationalisation traits. TEFs’ international performance also has a positive reverse causative effect on their internationalisation dimensions and antecedents, e.g. superior performance strongly promotes a higher level of international motivation. However, the effect of lower international performance is inconclusive. This thesis concludes with a discussion of the implications for management and policy makers. For example, TEF managers should overcome geographic distance to enter the main national market of their industry, if not their home country, for better international performance. As for host country policy makers, they should appreciate TEFs’ potential contribution to the host economy, understand how they internationalise and consider the provision of cost-effective and niche assistance to TEFs.

Transnational theories of migration have come to the fore in social science research as scholars have sought to account for the effect of globalization upon the practice of migration. The formulation of transnationalism has not been uncontested and its boundaries are still subject to redefinition. The studies that have utilised transnational frameworks have primarily centred upon circuits of movement flowing through North America. Although the volume of literature countering this focus has steadily increased there are few studies of transnationalism which apply to the migrations emerging from the spaces of the Former Soviet Union. Further, within post-Soviet studies the body of literature questioning the appropriateness of applying frameworks of western derivation to post-Soviet realities has grown steadily. This study applies transnational concepts to a post-Soviet context. This thesis comprises a case study of the migratory practice of Russian German respondents interviewed in Russia and Germany. The empirical findings are employed to problematise understandings of transnationalism within a post-Soviet rubric. I argue that although Russian Germans’ participation in transnational circuits is constrained by local circumstance in both Russia and Germany, study respondents are a part of a Russian German transnational community nonetheless. Their transnationalism is understood in terms of social space, hybridity and culture.