Background: The effect of animal-assisted activities (AAA) on the animal participants has been minimally investigated and the welfare of these animals has been questioned. Cortisol, in conjunction with stress-associated behavior, has been utilized as an objective assessment of animal welfare. Objective: Salivary cortisol and behavior in AAA dogs were measured to test the null hypothesis that salivary cortisol concentration and behavior are not different in an AAA environment compared to home or neutral environments.  Hair cortisol was measured in AAA dogs to test the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between hair cortisol and salivary cortisol. Methods:  Fifteen healthy adult dogs registered with an AAA organization were recruited.  A hair sample was collected from each dog upon enrollment.  Saliva samples were collected from each dog every 30 minutes, starting 30 minutes prior to and 30 minutes after a standardized 60 minute session across 3 settings: an AAA session (AS) for college students in the communal area of a residence hall; a neutral session (NS) located in a novel room without interaction with a stranger; and a home session (HS).  Each session was videotaped continuously and behaviors were coded at three separate 5-minute intervals while the dog was petted by a stranger in the AS or handler in the NS and HS. Results:  Salivary cortisol levels were not different in the AS compared to HS, but were significantly higher in the NS compared to AS and HS.  Dogs exhibited significantly more standing and ambulating behavior in the AS compared to HS.  Salivary cortisol level was negatively correlated with panting and standing at specific time points in the NS and AS, respectively.  Hair cortisol level did not correlate with salivary cortisol level at any time point in any of the settings. Conclusions:  During a 60 minute AAA session, salivary cortisol concentration and stress-associated behavior were not different compared to when dogs spent the same amount of time in the home setting, suggesting that they were not stressed when being used as AAA animals. The physical environment may be an important consideration when evaluating the effect of AAA on dogs.  Hair cortisol did not correlate with salivary cortisol, suggesting that hair may not be a representative predictor of cortisol in these environments.  Additional investigation is required to support cortisol and behavior as measures of stress and welfare in AAA animals. / Master of Science

La schizophrénie est un trouble psychiatrique répandu qui affecte grandement la vie de l’individu touché. Même si certains facteurs ont été identifiés comme causes de cette maladie, notamment des facteurs génétiques, ceux-ci n’expliquent pas entièrement les bases biologiques qui la sous- tendent. Certaines causes infectieuses ont été soulevées, dont la « toxoplasmose ». Celle-ci réfère à une infection par un parasite, Toxoplasma gondii (TG), qui touche environ le tiers de la population humaine mondiale. Des études animales ont montré que ce parasite peut manipuler le comportement de son hôte en menant à une diminution de la peur et à une augmentation de la prise de risque. Les résultats d’autres études portent à croire que ces types de comportements pourraient également être affectés par ce parasite chez l’humain, et ce, peut-être de manière plus importante chez les personnes souffrant de schizophrénie. La peur et la prise de risque étant toutes deux fortement associées aux réponses de stress, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que TG pourrait être relié à des différences au niveau de la réponse de stress chez l’humain, particulièrement chez la personne souffrant de schizophrénie. Nous avons testé si les biomarqueurs de stress (cortisol salivaire et des cheveux) diffèrent chez des personnes avec un diagnostic de schizophrénie et des contrôles en fonction de l’infection par TG. Nous avons aussi vérifié si TG était relié à des symptômes psychotiques spécifiques et/ou à de l’impulsivité (comme marqueur proxy des comportements de prise de risque). Dans cette étude, nous avons utilisé des échantillons de sang, de salive et de cheveux pour mesurer les anticorps TG, les niveaux de cortisol circulant et la sécrétion de cortisol à long terme, respectivement. Les résultats montrent que les personnes avec une schizophrénie infectées par TG présentent des concentrations de cortisol des cheveux significativement plus élevées que les personnes avec une schizophrénie non infectées, un effet qui n'a pas été trouvé chez les participants contrôles. Aucune différence de cortisol salivaire n'a été observée entre les participants infectés par TG et non infectés, autant dans le groupe schizophrène que contrôle. De plus, il n'y a aucune association entre TG et les symptômes psychotiques positifs ou entre TG et l'impulsivité. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’infection par TG est associée à des différences dans la production de cortisol à long terme chez les personnes avec une schizophrénie, mais pas dans la sécrétion de cortisol à court terme. / Schizophrenia is an important psychiatric disorder that greatly affects the life of the affected individual. Although some factors have been identified as causes of this disease, including genetic factors, these do not fully explain the biological basis behind it. Some infectious causes have been raised, including the “toxoplasmosis”. It refers to an infection by a parasite, Toxoplasma gondii (TG), which affects approximately one third of the world's human population. Animal studies have shown that this parasite can manipulate its host's behavior leading to decreased fear and increased risk taking. The results of other studies suggest that these types of behaviors could also be affected by this parasite in humans, and perhaps to a greater extent in people with schizophrenia. Since fear and risk-taking are both strongly associated with stress responses, we hypothesized that TG might be related to differences in the stress response in humans, particularly in people suffering from schizophrenia. We tested whether stress biomarkers (salivary and hair cortisol) differ in people with schizophrenia and controls depending on TG infection. We also checked whether TG was related to specific psychotic symptoms and/or impulsivity (as a proxy marker of risk-taking behaviors). In this study, we used blood, saliva, and hair samples to measure TG antibodies, circulating cortisol levels, and long-term cortisol secretion, respectively. Results show that TG-infected people with schizophrenia had significantly higher hair cortisol concentrations than uninfected people with schizophrenia, an effect that was not found in control participants. No difference in salivary cortisol was observed between TG- infected and uninfected participants, neither in the schizophrenic group nor in the control group. Moreover, there was no association between TG and positive psychotic symptoms or between TG and impulsivity. These results suggests that TG infection is linked to differences in long-term cortisol secretion in people with schizophrenia, but not in short-term cortisol secretion.

Hintergrund: Traumatische Erfahrungen in Kindheit und Jugend sowie über die Lebensspanne werden mit negativen Auswirkungen auf die psychische und physische Gesundheit der betroffenen Person in Verbindung gebracht. Chronischer Stress und traumatische Erfahrungen stehen zudem im Zusammenhang mit Veränderungen des körpereigenen Stresssystems. Diese Auswirkungen können über die betroffene Person hinaus auch die nächste Generation beeinflussen und deren Entwicklung beeinträchtigen. Während der Schwangerschaft ist intergenerationale Transmission über biologische Pfade denkbar. Daher soll untersucht werden, ob sich mütterliche und kindliche Haarcortisolkonzentration (HCC) als Marker für chronisches Stressgeschehen infolge von traumatischen Erfahrungen der Mütter verändert. Hypothesen: 1. Es wurde angenommen, dass es Unterschiede in der HCC zwischen traumatisierten und nicht traumatisierten Müttern und ihren Kindern gibt. 2. Zudem wurden Zusammenhänge erwartet zwischen dem Ausmaß der Traumatisierung und HCC bei Müttern und Kindern. 3. Es wurde angenommen, dass Kinder traumatisierter Mütter 14 Monate nach Geburt mehr Entwicklungsdefizite zeigen und 4. der Zusammenhang zwischen Traumatisierungserfahrung der Mütter und Entwicklungsoutcome der Kinder über mütterliches und/oder kindliches HCC mediiert wird. Methode: Traumatische Erfahrungen in Kindheit und Jugend wurden erfasst über den Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ); traumatische Erfahrungen über die Lebens-spanne über die Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS). Cortisol wurde über Haaranalysen bei 301 Müttern und 210 Kindern untersucht – die Haarproben der Mütter wurden max. 6 Wochen vor Geburt entnommen, die der Kinder bis zu drei Wochen postpartal, um die intrauterine Glucocorticoidregulation abzubilden. Mittels Einfaktorieller Varianzanalysen wurde auf Unterschiede in der HCC zwischen Müttern mit und ohne traumatischer Vorerfahrung getestet. Korrelationsanalysen wurden eingesetzt, um Zusammenhänge zwischen dem Ausmaß der Traumaerfahrung und der HCC, sowie zwischen dem Schweregrad der Traumatisierung und dem Entwicklungsoutcome der Kinder zu untersuchen. Eine Mediationsanalyse diente bei einer kleineren Stichprobe, die durch den späteren Messzeitpunkt resultierte (261 Mütter und 187 Kinder), dazu, 14 Monate nach Geburt, zu prüfen, ob HCC als Mediator für kindliches Entwicklungsoutcome – gemessen über den Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ––3), angenommen werden kann. Ergebnisse: Es zeigte sich ein signifikanter Unterschied hinsichtlich der langfristig integrierten HCC der Mütter, in Abhängigkeit vom Erleben traumatischer Erfahrungen über die Lebensspanne. Hierbei wiesen die Mütter mit mindestens einem traumatischen Ereignis über die Lebensspanne höhere HCC–Werte auf als nicht traumatisierte Mütter. Je schwerer die mütterliche Traumatisierung im Kindes– und Jugendalter war, desto höher war die mütterliche HCC–Konzentration. Bei den Kindern zeigten sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede im HCC. Ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen dem Maß an Traumatisierung in Kindheit und Jugend der Mütter und kindlichen Entwicklungsoutcomes konnte nur bezüglich eines verbesserten Problemlöseverhaltens der Kinder nachgewiesen werden. Weder die mütterliche noch die kindliche HCC konnte als Mediator zwischen mütterlicher Traumatisierung und kindlichem Entwicklungsoutcome bestätigt werden. Schlussfolgerungen: Das Erleben traumatischer Erfahrungen in Kindheit und Jugend und auch über die Lebensspanne scheint Veränderungen in der Stressbiologie der Mütter, nicht aber ihrer Kinder, nach sich zu ziehen. Kinder traumatisierter Mütter zeigten in der Untersuchung keine auffälligen HCC–Konzentrationen und keine Beeinträchtigungen in ihrer Entwicklung 14 Monate nach Geburt. Zukünftige Studien sind erforderlich, die eine transgenerationale Weitergabe von Traumaerfahrungen über einen längeren Zeitraum und auch unter Berücksichtigung der psychischen Gesundheit der Nach-kommen berücksichtigen. / Background: Traumatic experiences in childhood and adolescence as well as across the lifespan are associated with negative effects on mental and physical health of the affected individual. Chronic stress and traumatic experiences have also been related to changes in the body's stress system. These effects may extend beyond the affected individual to the next generation, potentially impacting their development. During pregnancy transgenerational effects may occur via biological pathways. Thus, we investigate whether maternal and child hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) as a marker for chronic stress events altered following maternal traumatic experiences. Hypotheses : 1. Differences in HCC were assumed between traumatised and non–traumatised mothers and their children. 2. In addition, correlations were expected between the extent of traumatisation and HCC in mothers and children. 3. It was assumed that children of traumatised mothers show more developmental deficits 14 months after birth and 4. that the connection between the traumatisation experience of the mothers and the developmental outcome of the children was mediated by maternal and/or child HCC. Method: Traumatic experiences in childhood and adolescence were assessed by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ); traumatic experiences across the lifespan by the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS). Cortisol was analysed in hair samples of 301 mothers and 210 children – the hair samples of the mothers were taken max. 6 weeks before birth, those of the children up to three weeks postpartum, in order to map intrauterine glucocorticoid regulation. Single–factor analyses of variance were used to test for differences in HCC between mothers with and without previous traumatic experience. Correlational analyses were utilized to investigate associations between the extent of trauma experience and HCC as well as between severity of traumatization and child developmental outcomes. Mediation analysis was used in a smaller sample, resulting from the later measurement time (261 mothers and 187 children) to test, 14 months after birth, whether HCC can be assumed to be a mediator of child developmental outcome – measured via the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ–3). Results: There was a significant difference in the long–term integrated HCC of the mothers, depending on the existence of traumatic experiences over the life span. Here, mothers with at least one traumatic event over the lifespan had higher HCC levels than non–traumatised mothers. The higher the severity of maternal traumatization in child-hood and adolescence, the higher the maternal HCC concentration. There were no significant differences in HCC among the children. A significant correlation between the level of trauma in childhood and adolescence of the mothers and child developmental outcomes could only be demonstrated with regard to improved problem–solving behavior of the children. Neither maternal nor child HCC could be confirmed as a mediator between maternal traumatization and child developmental outcome. Conclusions: Experiencing traumatic experiences in childhood and adolescence and also across the lifespan seems to result in changes in the stress biology of mothers, but not of their children. Children of traumatized mothers showed no noticeable HCC concentrations and no impairments in the study with regard to their development 14 months after birth. Future studies are needed that consider transgenerational transmission of trauma experiences over time and also examine the mental health of offspring.

Parenting is a demanding role that encompasses many responsibilities and challenges. When a child is diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, there are additional demands on the parent's time, energy, and financial resources, which likely leads to increased levels of chronic stress for parents. This dissertation examines the differences in chronic stress levels between parents who have children with autism and parents who do not, using hair cortisol concentration (HCC) as a benchmark. This dissertation also explores reducing parental stress by introducing a mindfulness intervention. Participants (n = 68) were recruited and divided into two groups: Parents of children who have autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and parents of neurotypical (NT) children. It was hypothesized that parents of ASD children would have higher stress levels than parents of NT children, that parents who participate in the intervention would have a reduction in stress, and that parents of ASD children would benefit more from the intervention compared to parents of NT children. The intervention consisted of an online, self-compassion-based mindfulness course that was introduced to parents. To examine the course's effectiveness in reducing stress for parents who completed (or at least began) the course, baseline, pre-, and post-mindfulness data were collected using self-report questionnaires and hair cortisol concentration levels. Questionnaire data demonstrated higher levels of stress in parents of children with autism as compared to parents of neurotypical children. However, the mindfulness course did not demonstrate effective stress reduction for parents in every self-report measure, though cortisol levels did decrease for both groups following the intervention. Evidence suggests that the course was effective in increasing feelings of self-compassion and increasing perception of flourishing, Additionally, cortisol levels decreased significantly in parents after participating in the mindfulness course. By investigating stress in parents of children with autism and exploring mindfulness as a possible resource for stress reduction, this dissertation contributes to the broader discourse on family well-being and mental health. It is my hope that insights garnered from this research will inform the development of supportive frameworks that empower families, foster resilience, and ultimately enhance the quality of life for children with autism and their parents.

The stress system comprises the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axes. The two operate synergistically to regulate metabolic and biological processes, maintain homeostasis, and manage physiological responses towards various environmental challenges, known as stressors. Numerous studies have observed impaired HPA response among White breast cancer survivors followed by an eventual normalization of the HPA axis, but little is known about SAM functioning, the complementary relationship between physiological and psychological stress, and the influence of culturally related factors. This dissertation aims to address these gaps in the literature via three studies. In Study 1, we examined the diurnal and reactive patterns of salivary alpha-amylase, a SAM biomarker, in a sample of predominantly White women with and without a prior diagnosis of breast cancer. The purpose was to establish an initial understanding of SAM functioning in relation to the participants’ HPA activity as measured by cortisol responses (complementary to a previously published study in the laboratory). Results of Study 1 revealed no abnormal response to stress. Virtually identical alpha-amylase slopes were observed between breast cancer survivors and control participants, except that breast cancer survivors had elevated basal levels of alpha-amylase, thus suggesting a “heightened sympathetic tone”. In Study 2 acute and diurnal cortisol profiles and their accompanying psychological stress responses were examined in a sample of Chinese and White women with and without a prior diagnosis of breast cancer. In the same participants, we also examined chronic stress levels via hair cortisol concentrations which was the subject of Study 3. In both studies 2 and 3, we assessed the potential influences of cultural orientation and ethnocultural group membership on physiological and psychological stress patterns. For the most part, Study 2 supported previous findings from the literature and our laboratory: Breast cancer survivors displayed a blunted cortisol response and their diurnal profile was comparable to that of control participants. But contrary to our hypotheses, ethnocultural membership and cultural orientation did not influence physiological patterns of stress. However, an interaction between ethnocultural group, health status, and time (i.e., from baseline to one hour after stress induction) was observed in the subjective appraisal of an acute stressor. Specifically, White breast cancer survivors reported significantly lower levels of perceived stress than the other three groups. These results suggest that health-related stress may supersede the effects of culturally related stress and indicate the potential presence of posttraumatic growth among our sample of White breast cancer survivors only. Study 3 revealed no differences in hair cortisol concentrations between breast cancer survivors and control participants, nor between Chinese and White breast cancer survivors. However, it was observed that healthy Chinese women exhibited significantly higher levels of hair cortisol concentrations than their Western counterpart. Further analyses revealed that health status and cultural orientation did not significantly predict the observed patterns of physiological or psychological stress. Although non-significant, Study 3 results offered preliminary evidence that higher orientation towards both the dominant and non-dominant cultures is associated with higher levels of chronic physiological and psychological stress. Collectively, our studies may provide support for the long-term recovery of the HPA axis via the examination of acute, diurnal, and chronic patterns of cortisol, but further research will be required. The dissertation also highlights several important key points regarding culturally related factors, health, and stress: (1) The perception of stress is influenced by one’s degree of cultural orientation and (2) effects of health-related stress may supersede those of culturally related stress, but (3) among healthy women, ethnocultural minorities may have more stressful encounters than their Western counterpart, thus having important clinical implications for ethnocultural minorities who are newly diagnosed with a chronic condition. Together, results of the studies highlight the importance of further investigating the enduring and acute implications of psychosocial variables – particularly the influence of cultural orientation – on the experience and perception of stress.

Human-caused ecological change negatively affects the sustainability of many wildlife populations but may be especially challenging for large carnivores and ungulates. Long-term physiological stress may be an important mechanism linking ecological change with impaired health and reduced population performance in these groups. The determination of hair cortisol concentration (HCC) has recently demonstrated potential as a biomarker of long-term stress in humans and domestic animals, and may also represent a practical technique for use in free-ranging wildlife. The objectives of this research program were to: 1) develop and apply an accurate and reliable method for measuring cortisol levels in hair collected opportunistically or remotely from free-ranging grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), polar bears (Ursus maritimus), and caribou (Rangifer tarandus sp.), and 2) to evaluate the utility of HCC as a biomarker of long-term stress (and thus potentially useful conservation tool) in these threatened species. An enzyme-immunoassay (EIA) based technique for measuring HCC in non-human primates was successfully modified for use with small quantities (5-100 mg) of hair representative of samples which may be obtained through opportunistic (e.g. hunting, research captures, archives) or remote (e.g. barb wire snagging) methods in each species. HCC was determined in 151 free-ranging grizzly bears from Alberta, Canada (mean 2.84 pg/mg, range 0.62-43.33 pg/mg); 185 free-ranging polar bears from southern Hudson Bay, Canada (mean 0.48 pg/mg range, 0.16-2.26 pg/mg); in 12 captive Alaskan caribou (R. t. granti) (mean 2.31 pg/mg, range, 1.57-3.86 pg/mg) and 12 captive reindeer (R .t. tarandus) (mean 2.88 pg/mg, range 2.21-3.40 pg/mg) injected either with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or saline; and in 94 free-ranging caribou (R. t. groenlandicus) from West Greenland (mean 2.21 pg/mg, range 0.60-6.90 pg/mg). Factors influencing HCC in each species were then explored including: 1) technical considerations for the prudent use of HCC analysis and 2) potential relationships between HCC, biological traits, health, and prevailing environmental conditions. Evidence revealed in this study suggests that, with further research, this technique may show potential as a practical conservation tool for use in free-ranging grizzly bear, polar bear, and caribou populations.

A primary focus of wildlife research is to understand how habitat conditions and human activities impact the health of wild animals. External factors, both natural and anthropogenic that impact the ability of an animal to acquire food and build energy reserves have important implications for reproductive success, avoidance of predators, and the ability to withstand disease, and periods of food scarcity. In the analyses presented here, I quantify the impacts of habitat quality and anthropogenic disturbance on indicators of health for individuals in a threatened grizzly bear population in Alberta, Canada. The first analysis relates spatial patterns of hair cortisol concentrations, a promising indicator of long-term stress in mammals, measured from 304 grizzly bears to a variety of continuous environmental variables representative of habitat quality (e.g., crown closure, landcover, and vegetation productivity), topographic conditions (e.g., elevation and terrain ruggedness), and anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., roads, forest harvest blocks, and oil and gas well-sites). Hair cortisol concentration point data were integrated with continuous variables by creating a stress surface for male and female bears using kernel density estimation validated through bootstrapping. The relationships between hair cortisol concentrations for males and females and environmental variables were quantified using random forests, and landscape scale stress levels for both genders was predicted based on observed relationships. Low female stress levels were found to correspond with regions with high levels of anthropogenic disturbance and activity. High female stress levels were associated primarily with high-elevation parks and protected areas. Conversely, low male stress levels were found to correspond with parks and protected areas and spatially limited moderate to high stress levels were found in regions with greater anthropogenic disturbance. Of particular concern for conservation is the observed relationship between low female stress and sink habitats which have high mortality rates and high energetic costs. Extending the first analysis, the second portion of this research examined the impacts of scale-specific habitat selection and relationships between biology, habitat quality, and anthropogenic disturbance on body condition in 85 grizzly bears represented using a body condition index. Habitat quality and anthropogenic variables were represented at multiple scales using isopleths of a utilization distribution calculated using kernel density estimation for each bear. Several hypotheses regarding the influence of biology, habitat quality, and anthropogenic disturbance on body condition quantified using linear mixed-effects models were evaluated at each habitat selection scale using the small sample Aikake Information Criterion. Biological factors were influential at all scales as males had higher body condition than females, and body condition increased with age for both genders. At the scale of most concentrated habitat selection, the biology and habitat quality hypothesis had the greatest support and had a positive effect on body condition. A component of biology, the influence of long-term stress, which had a negative impact on body condition, was most pronounced within the biology and habitat quality hypothesis at this scale. As the scale of habitat selection was represented more broadly, support for the biology and anthropogenic disturbance hypothesis increased. Anthropogenic variables of particular importance were distance decay to roads, density of secondary linear features, and density of forest harvest areas which had a negative relationship with body condition. Management efforts aimed to promote landscape conditions beneficial to grizzly bear health should focus on promoting habitat quality in core habitat and limiting anthropogenic disturbance within larger grizzly bear home ranges. / Graduate / 0768 / 0463 / 0478 / mathieub@uvic.ca