Orientadores: Luciana Bolsoni Lourenço, Carmen Silvia Busin / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T12:08:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gatto_KalebPretto_M.pdf: 33988822 bytes, checksum: 7e3f3565dac9a540ea7c353f51068d4f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: O resumo poderá ser visualizado no texto completo da tese digital / Abstract: The abstract is available with the full electronic document / Mestrado / Biologia Celular / Mestre em Biologia Celular e Estrutural

Orientador: Maria Luiza Silveira Mello / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T03:24:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Alvarenga_EleniceMonte_M.pdf: 2829254 bytes, checksum: 964b17aaf1c7f50d4471a7be569aaa6d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: A cromatina pode existir em núcleos interfásicos em dois estados distintos: como eucromatina e como heterocromatina, podendo ser esta constitutiva ou facultativa. Em células somáticas do final da fase ninfal dos hemípteros reduviídeos Triatoma infestans e Panstrongylus megistus há núcleos grandes, poliploides, nos quais a heterocromatina apresenta-se como corpos conspícuos (cromocentros), daí tais células apresentarem-se como um bom modelo para investigação de características morfológicas e funcionais da cromatina. Em estudos sobre a constituição cromatínica, a composição em bases do DNA é algo muito explorado, dado o conteúdo informativo dos achados. Já quando se objetiva a investigação da funcionalidade da cromatina, mais recentemente, tem-se feito uso da abordagem epigenética. Neste trabalho buscou-se investigar a composição em bases do DNA destas células, associando-a aos domínios cromatínicos aí existentes e também à presença das NORs. Por meio de colorações fluorescentes com Cromomicina A3 (CMA3)/Distamicina e 4',6-diamidino-2-fenilindol (DAPI)/Actinomicina D concluiuse que o DNA dos cromocentros de T. infestans e P. megistus são ricos em sequências AT e pobres em GC. Isto foi ainda confirmado por imunodetecção de 5-metilcitosina, que ocorreu somente na eucromatina, e tratamento de ninfas de T. infestans com 5-aza-2'-deoxicitidina (agente demetilante), seguido da análise dos fenótipos nucleares e análise de imagem, em que se observou expansão somente da área eucromática. Com o método de AgNOR evidenciou-se que a região rica em bases GC ao redor do cromocentro coincide com um acúmulo de proteínas argirofílicas, o que sugere associação com NORs. A presença de modificações epigenéticas nas caudas das histonas na cromatina destes insetos foi investigada por meio do uso de anticorpos contra marcadores epigenéticos específicos, permitindo identificar a participação diferencial dos mesmos na composição e na estrutura dos territórios heterocromáticos. Assim, observou-se hipoacetilação e hipermetilação de histonas na região do corpo heterocromático, o que indicaria uma possível ação da modificação de histonas na manutenção da estrutura heterocromática nas células somáticas de ambas as espécies de reduviídeos. Por meio da avaliação da ação de drogas inibidoras de deacetilases de histonas sobre a cromatina dos insetos percebeu-se que, quando ninfas de T. infestans e P. megistus foram tratadas com as drogas, houve aumento na frequência de necroses e, no caso específico do tratamento com tricostatina A (TSA) e butirato de sódio (NaBt), ocorreu descompactação da heterocromatina. Sugere-se que o tratamento com TSA e NaBt afete o processo de deacetilação de histonas, o qual seria, então, um fator importante na estruturação dos cromocentros. A observação da ocorrência de mudas e da sobrevivência de ninfas de T. infestans, realizada a fim de se avaliar a ação do ácido valproico (VPA) sobre o desenvolvimento dos insetos, mostrou que a droga, assim como a injeção de solução salina, reduziu seu período de sobrevivência, além de afetar a ocorrência de mudas / Abstract: Chromatin in interphase cell nuclei can be present in two distinct states: euchromatin and heterochromatin, which may be constitutive or facultative. In somatic cells at the end of the nymphal stage of Triatoma infestans and Panstrongylus megistus there are large nuclei, in which heterochromatin is presented as conspicuous bodies (chromocenters). These cells are an appropriate model for investigation of morphological and functional characteristics of the chromatin. In studies about chromatin constitution, the base DNA composition is explored due to the informational content of the findings. If the objective is to investigate the chromatin functionality, recently has been used the epigenetic approach. In the current study, the aim was to investigate the DNA base composition in these cells, associating with the chromatin domains therein and also the presence of NORs. Through fluorescent stains with Chromomycin A3 (CMA3)/Distamycin and 4',6-diamidino-2-fenilindole (DAPI)/Actinomycin D was found that the chromocenters DNA of T. infestans and P. megistus were AT-rich and GC-poor. This was also confirmed by immunodetection of 5-methylcytidine, which occurred only in the euchromatin, and by T. infestans nymphs treatment with 5-aza-2'- deoxycytidine (demethylating agent), followed by nuclear phenotypes analysis and image analysis, in which expansion was observed only in the euchromatic area. AgNOR test evidenced that the GC-rich region around the chromocenter coincides with an accumulation of argyrophilic proteins, suggesting association with NORs. Epigenetic modifications on histone tails in chromatin of these insects were investigated by using antibodies against specific epigenetic markers, in order to identify their differential participation in the composition and structure of these heterochromatic regions. It was observed hypoacetylation and hypermethylation in heterochromatic body area, suggesting a possible action of histones modification in the maintenance of the heterochromatic structure in somatic cells of both species of reduviids. Through evaluation of histones deacetylases inhibitors action on the chromatin, it was observed that when T. infestans and P. megistus nymphs were treated with these drugs there was an increase in the frequencies of necrosis, and in the specific case of Trichostatin A (TSA) and sodium butyrate (NaBt), occurred heterochromatin decondensation. It is suggested that treatments with TSA and NaBt could affect the histones deacetilation process, which would be an important factor in chromocenters structuring. Observations of the molting occurrence and survival of T. infestans nymphs, carried out in order to evaluate the action of valproic acid (VPA) on the development of insects, showed that this drug, as well as injection of saline, reduced the survival period, besides affecting the molting occurrence / Mestrado / Biologia Celular / Mestre em Biologia Celular e Estrutural

La présence de domaines chromosomiques heterochromatiniens associé à des effets de position est une propriété communes à de nombreux génomes eukaryotes. L'intensité et l'étendue de la variégation liée aux effets de position sont généralement sensibles à la dose des protéines effectrices de l'hétérochromatine. Les propriétés d'auto-propagation des complexes d'hétérochromatine a un cout, qui est la nécessité d'établir des mécanismes stoppant la propagation de la répression transcriptionelle. Cette thèse explore la dose-dépendance de l'effet de position télomérique en étudiant le complexe SIR de la levure du boulanger. La caractérisation du groupement des télomères en foyers, de la localisation de Sir3 et de la transcription dans des souches sur-exprimant Sir3 a permis d'établir l'étendue maximale des domaines silencieux présent aux subtelomeres. L'étude de jeux de données publiés a révélé que ces domaines terminent généralement au niveau de zones correspondant où les propriétés de la chromatine montrent une transition importante. Ces transitions chromatiniennes sont requises pour survivre en présence d'un excès de protéines Sir3 puisque nous avons démontré que les mutants dot1 ne survivent pas un tel excès. En outre nous avons conduit un crible génétique qui a révélé de nombreux gènes requis pour la survie en présence d'une surdose de Sir3. Ce travail caractérise la réponse du génome à une surdose d'hétérochromatine et a permis de révéler des domaines subtélomeriques associés à des propriétés chromatiniennes particulières. En conséquence nous démontrons comment l'effet de position télomerique est efficacement restreint au subtelomere chez la levure. / A shared property of several eukaryotic genomes is the presence of heterochromatic chromosomal domains experiencing transcriptional variegation. The intensity and the extent of position effect variegation are sensitive to the dosage of silencing effectors in many systems. The self-propagating properties of heterochromatin machineries come with a cost, which is the requirement for mechanisms preventing ectopic spreading of silencing. This thesis explores the dose-dependency of telomere position effect, using the budding yeast SIR system as a model for chromatin based heterochromatic silencing. To assess the dose-dependency of telomere position effect in budding yeast, we systematically characterized the impact of Sir3 overexpression by quantifying the clustering of telomeres, the genome wide binding of Sir3 and its impact on coding and non coding transcription. Analysis of published data sets enabled to uncover candidates potentially responsible for the limitation of subtelomeric silent domains. Our study reveals that extension of silent domains can reach saturation, associated with the anti-silencing properties of histone marks deposited by the conserved enzyme Dot1. In addition we discovered genes required for viability upon SIR3 overexpression by conducting a genetic screen. Our work describes the dynamics of the dose dependency of heterochromatin propagation in budding yeast. It uncovers previously uncharacterized discrete chromosomal domains associated with specific chromatin features and demonstrates how telomere position effect is efficiently restricted to subtelomeres by the preexisting chromatin landscape.

Epigenetics is an area of biology that studies heritable changes in gene ex- pression without any change in the DNA sequence. The most studied epige- netic mechanisms are DNA methylation, RNA interference and histone mod- ifications. There are over 130 different modifications that can be attached to histones, and the most commonly studied are methylation, acetylation, phos- phorylation, sumoylation and ubiquitination. The modifications, spread out through the genome, form the histone code, which recruits transcription fac- tors and modifies the accessibility of the DNA, which results in either active or silenced transcription. The silenced form of chromatin is known as heter- ochromatin and is usually found in regions of the chromosome that need to be highly regulated. To study epigenetics, the model organism Schizosac- charomyces pombe is used widely used. S. pombe is a single cell, rod shaped, fission yeast. The simplicity of S. pombe and its similarities to high- er eukaryotes makes it a good model organism for studying epigenetics. We find that, when mutating evolutionary conserved amino acids in the Clr2 protein, which is involved in heterochromatin formation in S. pombe, there is a change in silencing in different heterochromatic regions. When constructs of Clr2 with the BAH domain deleted are overexpressed, there is an increase in silencing in the central core centromere of chromosome II of S. pombe.

Os peixes apresentam uma grande diversidade quanto a sua morfologia, seus habitats e também sua biologia. São encontrados em lagos, córregos, estuários e oceanos, constituindo assim mais de 50% do número total das espécies de vertebrados conhecidas atualmente. Essa fauna tem sido objeto de um número expressivo de estudos citogenéticos e moleculares, tendo-se já conhecimento não só das relações cromossômicas, mas também da sistemática de vários grupos. Essas pesquisas têm investigado não somente o número e fórmula cromossômica, mas também a presença de cromossomos sexuais diferenciados, presença de cromossomos supranumerários, padrões de distribuição da heterocromatina, localização das regiões organizadoras de nucléolo, padrões de bandamento de restrição e replicação, permitindo a localização de diferentes classes de DNAs repetitivos, bem como a identificação de homeologias cromossômicas que auxiliam a compreensão da evolução cariotípica dos grupos. Os estudos moleculares, por sua vez, têm se tornado cada vez mais importantes nesse grupo e têm fornecido dados fundamentais não só no que diz respeito à filogenia dos grupos, como também em relação a regiões repetitivas do DNA e sua importância no genoma. A união dessa área com a Citogenética tem permitido uma maior e melhor compreensão sobre os processos evolutivos associados às alterações de seqüências específicas do genoma visíveis tanto a níveis cromossômicos, quanto moleculares. O gênero Gymnotus (Teleostei: Gymnotiformes) inclui representantes com características biológicas peculiares, o que os torna objeto de estudo de diversas áreas da Biologia. Estudos sobre o gênero incluem sua caracterização cariotípica, estudo das regiões organizadoras de nucléolo (RONs) polimórficas, bem como estudos envolvendo marcadores moleculares, os quais conjuntamente com a Citogenética permitiram a análise de filogenética molecular, com inferência na evolução cromossômica, permitindo uma melhor compreensão das relações dentro do gênero. No presente trabalho foram levados a efeito estudos sobre as regiões heterocromáticas e os DNAs repetitivos desse grupo, para uma melhor compreensão da organização e localização dessas seqüências no genoma e a identificação de possíveis marcadores moleculares. Foram efetuados ainda, estudos envolvendo a evolução cariotípica das espécies G. carapo e G. sylvius, localização de genes ribossômicos e análise molecular do gene ribossômico 5S juntamente com seu espaçador não transcrito, propiciando uma melhor compreensão da evolução dessa família gênica em Gymnotus. / Fishes present a great diversity in relation to their morphology, habitat and biology. They are found in lakes, rivers, estuaries and oceans, comprising more than 50% of the total number of known vertebrates. Cytogenetic and molecular aspects of the fish fauna have been extensively studied, providing information about their chromosomal relationships and also about the systematic status of several groups. These researches have focused on the description of both chromosomal number and formula as well as the presence of differentiated sex chromosomes, occurrence of B-chromosomes, patterns of heterochromatin distribution, localization of nucleolar organizer regions, restriction or replication banding profiles allowing to locate distinct classes of repetitive DNAs and to identify chromosomal homeologies in order to understand the karyotypic evolution in distinct groups. On the other hand, molecular studies have become of utmost importance in this group, providing essential data about phylogeny of many groups and about repetitive DNA regions and their role in the genome. The union between this approach and cytogenetics has favored a better comprehension about the evolutionary processes associated with visible alterations in specific sequences within the genome at both chromosomal and molecular levels. The genus Gymnotus is composed of representatives with peculiar biological features, which turn them suitable for studies in a variety of biology approaches. Genetic studies in this genus comprise karyotype characterization, analysis of polymorphic NORs, besides studies of molecular markers that, coupled with cytogenetics, have fostered molecular phylogenetic analyzes with inferences on their chromosomal evolution, which have led to a better understanding about the interrelationships in the group. In the present work, we carried out studies about the heterochromatic regions and the repetitive DNAs in this group for a better comprehension about the organization and localization of these sequences in the genome and identification of potential molecular markers. Furthermore, studies related to the karyotype evolution in the species G. carapo and G. sylvius, location of ribosomal genes and molecular analysis of both 5S ribosomal gene and its non-transcribed spacer were performed to provide a better comprehension about the evolution of this gene family in Gymnotus.

Chez les eucaryotes, l’ADN est empaqueté dans des complexes protéiques d’histones nommés nucléosomes qui assurent sa conformation. Cet arrangement est hétérogène à travers le génome et peut être dynamiquement modifié. La régulation de l’architecture chromatinienne joue un rôle essentiel dans la stabilité des génomes ainsi que la dynamique transcriptionnelle. Certaines régions qualifiées d’ ‘’heterochromatine constitutive’’ sont toutefois connues pour être maintenues à l’état condensé. Régionalisées aux extrémités et centres des chromosomes, l’hétérochromatine constitutive participe des fonctions télomériques et centromériques.Spodoptera frugiperda (S.fru, Lépidoptère, Noctuelle) est un ravageur de culture endémique du continent américain, récemment invasif dans le continent africain. Comme tous les Lépidoptères, S.fru est une espèce holocentrique dont le centromère est réparti le long des chromosomes et non restreint en un point unique. Cette disposition interroge sur l’établissement, la distribution ainsi que la fonction conservée de l’HC puisque cette dernière est principalement décrite pour être majoritairement localisée dans de larges régions péricentriques. Comprendre l’architecture chromatinienne chez S.fru peut avoir un intérêt en lutte biologique mais également permettre d’approfondir les connaissances en épigénétique chez un organisme non-modèle.Dans le cadre de la thèse, nous nous sommes demandés si la diméthylation de la lysine 9 de l’histone 3 (H3K9me2), marqueur de l’hétérochromatine constitutive, possédait un rôle conservé chez S.fru. Pour ce faire, nous avons comparé des données de ChIP-seq d’H3K9me2 sur cellules et larves entières après avoir annoté les gènes et l’ensemble des éléments répétés du génome, susceptibles d’être enrichis par cette marque. Parallèlement, des échantillons d’ARN-seq ont été étudiés afin de questionner le statut répressif de l’hétérochromatine constitutive. Nos résultats suggèrent un invariable maintien d’H3K9me2 dans les régions (sub)télomériques transcriptionnellement inactives ainsi qu’une forte association aux locus répétés d'ADN ribosomal (rDNA). Ces séquences ne constituent toutefois qu’une minorité des régions enrichies, le reste étant retrouvé dans des séquences répétées ainsi que dans le corps des gènes, indifféremment de leur état transcriptionnel. La persistante association d’H3K9me2 aux télomères et rDNA présagerait d’un maintien de la marque à proximité des centromères dont nous proposons un modèle d’établissement.La disposition de l’hétérochromatine constitutive questionne celle des régions euchromatiniennes, pauvres en nucléosomes, transcriptionnellement active et dynamiquement modifiées au cours du développement, du cycle cellulaire et des conditions environnementales. Afin de tester l’antagonisme de ces conformations, nous avons respectivement étudié la répartition des zones ouvertes et fermées du génome de la larve au stade L4 par approches de FAIRE-seq et de MAINE-seq. Ces structures ont été décrites dans la littérature pour être enrichies par de spécifiques modifications d’histones. Ainsi nous avons mis au point le protocole de native ChIP-seq d’H3K4me3 (marque active) et H3K9me2, H3K9me3, H3K27me3 (marques répressives). L’analyse en cours de l’ensemble de ces données de séquençages permettra d’avoir une vue intégrée de l’architecture chromatinienne au stade ravageur. / In eukaryotes, DNA is arranged in histones proteins complexes called nucleosomes that shape its conformation. This arrangement is heterogeneous across genomes and can be dynamically modified. Regulation of chromatin architecture plays an essential role in genome stability and transcription dynamics. Some regions named ‘’constitutive heterochromatin’’ are nonetheless known to remain highly condensed, regardless of conditions. Regionalized at extremities and chromosomes centers, constitutive heterochromatin contributes to telomeric and centromeric functions.Spodoptera frugiperda (S.fru, Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) is major crop pest in the Americas that recently invaded Africa. Like all Lepidopteran, S.fru is holocentric which means that its centromere is spread along chromosome and not restricted to a uniq point. This disposition question about establishment, distribution but also conserved function of constitutive heterochromatin since its usually and mainly localized in large pericentric regions.Deciphering chromatinian architecture in S.fru can be of interest in biological control but also allow to deepen epigenetic knowledge in a non-model organism.During my phD, we questionned the role of histone 3 lysine 9 demethylated (H3K9me2) in S.fru, a histone modification known in other yet described organisms to be a constitutive constitutive heterochromatinian hallmark.We compared H3K9me2 ChIP-seq data on cells and larvae after overall genomic functional annotation, potentially enriched for this mark. In parallel, RNA-seq samples were analyzed to question the putative repressive status of constitutive heterochromatin.Our results suggest an invariant retention of H3K9me2 in (sub)telomeric regions transcriptionally inactive but also a strong association of this mark in repeated ribosomal DNA locus (rDNA).These sequences constitutes nonetheless a minority of enriched regions since most of them regionalize in repeated sequences like transposons and tandem array but also gene bodies, independently of their transcriptional states.Persistent H3K9me2 association to telomeres and rDNA could predict of the conserved expression of this mark near centromeres. Based on literature and bioinformatics analysis, we proposed a model for S.fru holocentromeres.Constitutive heterochromatin questions euchromatin arrangement, described to be nucleosome poor, transcriptionally active and dynamically modified across development, cell cycle and environmental conditions. In order to test these structural antagonisms, we respectively studied open and closed genome conformations by FAIRE-seq and MAINE in larvae. These structures are reported to be associated to specific histones marks. We developed a native ChIP-seq protocol on H3K4me3 (active mark) and H3K9me2, H3K9me3, H3K27me3 (repressives marks). Overall analysis of these NGS data would help to picture an integrative view of chromatin architecture during larval pest stage.

Snakes (Serpentes) are a group of squamate reptiles (Squamata) including more than 3600 species. The vast majority of snakes are from the group Caenophidia, which includes approximately 90% of all extant snake species and represents the most studied lineage. Squamate reptiles are variable in sex determination and genome organisation, however, caenophidian snakes are quite stable in these respects. The typical - and probably ancestral - snake karyotype is composed of 36 chromosomes with 16 macro- and 20 microchromosomes. In all snake species, genotypic sex determination (GSD) is expected and it was assumed until recently that all snakes possessed ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes. The main reason for this is that most of the studied snakes were from the group Caenophidia and in the rest of the snake lineages it was believed that their sex chromosomes were homologous. In fact, the sex chromosomes of non-caenophidian snakes have not yet been identified - with the single exception of Acrantophis dumerili. Nevertheless, a recent study showed that there was an independent evolution of XX/XY sex chromosomes in pythons and boas. Sex chromosomes of these snakes are homomorphic and so far they have not been detected by classical cytogenetic methods. In this context, the aim of this study is to explore whether it is...

In eukaryotic interphase cells, heterochromatin mostly localizes either at the nucleolar periphery or at the nuclear lamina. Genome localization studies are crucial due to evidence that spatial organization of the genome affects gene function. Nucleolus-associated domains (NADs) are mainly heterochromatic regions that have been mapped only in a handful of mouse and human somatic cells, and in plants. The extent to which changes in NAD localization occur during cellular differentiation remains unknown. In this thesis, we characterize a map of genome-wide NADs in F121-9 mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). We identified NADs by deep sequencing chromatin associated with biochemically purified nucleoli and using NADfinder software to call NAD peaks. F121-9 NADs are mostly comprised of genomic regions with inactive or lowly transcribed genes and overlap extensively with lamina-associated domains (LADs) and regions with late replication timing. Similar to somatic mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), where NADs have been previously characterized by our laboratory, F121-9 mESCs display abundant “Type I” NADs. This subset of NADs frequently associates with nuclear lamina and nucleolar periphery and resembles constitutive heterochromatin. Compared to MEFs, F121-9 mESCs have fewer “Type II” NADs; this subset of NADs is frequently found at the nucleolar periphery but not at the nuclear lamina. mESC NADs are also less enriched in H3K27me3 modified regions compared to MEF NADs. This suggests that Polycomb complex-mediated facultative vii heterochromatin expansion is part of NAD maturation during cellular differentiation. Comparison of MEF and mESC NADs also revealed enrichment of developmentally regulated genes in NADs specific to these cell types. Together, these data indicate that NADs are a developmentally dynamic component of heterochromatin. Our F121-9 mESC NAD studies identified distinct features of stem cell NADs and will facilitate future studies of genome organization changes during mammalian development.

La distorsion de ségrégation méiotique est une entorse à la loi de ségrégation équilibrée des allèles via les gamètes. Les gènes ou éléments génétiques causaux (distorteurs de ségrégation) empêchent, chez les hétérozygotes, la production de gamètes qui ne les contiennent pas. Ils peuvent ainsi se répandre dans les populations même s’ils sont délétères pour les individus porteurs.Parce qu'ils induisent un biais du sexe ratio, les distorteurs liés au sexe et s'exprimant dans le sexe hétérogamétique sont générateurs de conflits intragénomiques, caractérisés par l'évolution de suppresseurs qui tendent à rétablir l'équilibre des sexes. Ce processus peut conduire à l’émergence de nouvelles espèces, à l’évolution du comportement reproducteur ou du déterminisme du sexe.Dans l'espèce Drosophila simulans, des distorteurs liés au chromosome X, perturbent la ségrégation du chromosome Y lors de la méiose mâle. La descendance des mâles porteurs est alors très majoritairement femelle. Un de ces éléments distorteurs, le gène HP1D2, code une protéine qui se lie au chromosome Y avant la méiose. La distorsion est le fait d'allèles dysfonctionnels de HP1D2 (qui ont un faible niveau de transcrits testiculaires et/ou ont une délétion du domaine d’interaction protéine-protéine). Dans les populations naturelles envahies par les distorteurs, ceux-ci se trouvent neutralisés par des suppresseurs autosomaux et des chromosomes Y résistants.Le premier volet de ma thèse a été consacré au déterminisme génétique de la suppression autosomale. Par cartographie de QTL, utilisant des lignées recombinantes consanguines, j'ai révélé la complexité de ce déterminisme : 5 QTLs avec de nombreuses relation d’épistasie.Le deuxième volet est consacré au chromosome Y, qui présente, d’importante variations phénotypiques pour la résistance aux distorteurs. Nous avons étudié ses variations moléculaires et structurales et la dynamique des Y résistants dans les populations naturelles. Le séquençage de différents chromosomes Y, résistants ou sensibles, a permis de retracer l’histoire évolutive du chromosome Y en relation avec celle des distorteurs.Le dernier volet est une étude cytologique pour comparer le comportement des formes sauvages et distortrices de la protéine HP1D2 dans les spermatogonies.Dans l’ensemble ces travaux apportent un éclairage sur les bases génétiques et moléculaires du système Paris et sur son évolution. / Meiotic drive is an infringement of the law of allele segregation into the gametes. In heterozygote individuals, the causal genes or genetic elements (meiotic drivers), prevent the production of gamete which does not contain it. Thus, they can spread through populations even if they are deleterious for the carriers.Because they induce sex-ratio bias, sex-linked drivers that are expressed in the heterogametic sex, are an important source of genetic conflict, characterized by the evolution of suppressor which tends to restore a balanced sex ratio. This process can lead to the emergence of new species, evolution of reproductive behavior or sex determination.In Drosophila simulans, X-linked meiotic drivers disturb the segregation of the Y chromosome during male meiosis. The progeny of carrier male is mainly composed of females. One of the drivers is the HP1D2 gene, which encodes a protein that binds to the heterochromatic Y chromosome. The distortion is due to dysfunctional alleles of HP1D2 (low level of expression and/or a deletion of its protein-protein interaction domain). In natural populations where the drivers have spread, they are neutralized by autosomal suppressors and resistant Y chromosomes.The first part of my thesis was focus on the genetic determinism of autosomal suppression. I performed a QTL mapping using recombinant inbreed lines which highlighted the complexity of the genetic determinism of suppression: 5 QTLs and multiple epistatic interaction.The second part is about the Y chromosome, which show important phenotypic variation in the resistance of Y chromosomes to the driver. We studied its molecular and structural variation and the dynamic of resistant Y chromosomes in natural population. The sequencing of different Y chromosomes, sensitive and resistant, allowed us to retrace the evolutionary history of the Y chromosome related to the one of the driver.The last part is a cytological study to compare the localization of the functional and the driver form of HP1D2 in spermatogonia.Generally, results presented here give a better insight regarding the genetic bases and the evolution of the multiple actors of the Paris sex ratio system.

The proper packaging of the genome in eukaryotic nuclei is essential for proper gene expression and cell function. Chromatin at the large scale is divided into two major compartments heterochromatin and euchromatin. Heterochromatin compromises the transcriptionally inactive tightly packaged regions of chromatin, while euchromatin is the transcriptionally active region of chromatin. The Heterochromatin Protein family (HP1) proteins are epigenetic hallmarks of constitutive heterochromatin. Recent evidence suggests human HP1α undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation suggesting a role for HP1 phase separation in the formation of compacted heterochromatin within HP1 droplets. Phase separation is a biophysical property of proteins with intrinsically disordered domains which are protein domains that lack a defined secondary structure and have the ability to undertake multiple conformations. In this thesis, I investigated the ability of C. elegans HP1 homologs HPL-2A and HPL-1 to phase separate utilizing directed mutations to elucidate the intermolecular interactions that govern this phenomenon and different assays to assess their phase separation. I concluded that HPL-2A is a bona fide phase separating protein that selectively condenses chromatin. HPL-2A’s phase separation depends on specific interactions, mainly dimerization and the presence of lysine and arginine residues in the hinge region. HPL-2A has a specific IDR that drives its phase separation which is the hinge region as the CTE and NTE are not essential for its phase separation.