IST2 is known as a gene encoding in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae a membrane protein, that is studied thanks to a unique way of biogenesis and trafficking that apparently does not use classical secretory pathway. Although the gene was named more than ten years ago according to the phenotype of cells with its deletion (Increased Sodium Tolerance), the role of this protein in cell tolerance to toxic sodium has not been elucidated. Our searches in databases revealed that similar proteins are encoded in the genomes of other species of yeast, but none of them has been studied so far. In this work, four new strains lacking IST2 have been constructed in the genetic backgrounds differing by the presence of genes encoding transport systems for accumulation of potassium (Trk1, Trk2), for export of surplus potassium cations (Tok1, Ena1-5, Nha1) and for export of toxic cations lithium and sodium (Ena1-5, Nha1). Plasmid carrying the gene coding IST2 sequence has also been conctructed. The effect of IST2 deletion in different genetic backgrounds was studied by phenotypic tests on solid and liquid media. It was found that IST2 probably does not play a role in osmotolerance in general (absence of the phenotype of IST2 deletion on high concentrations of KCl), but its presence affects ability of the cells...

P. chrysosporium est un champignon saprophyte capable de dégrader de nombreux xénobiotiques, ce qui le rend particulièrement intéressant pour des applications en bioremédiation. Plusieurs publications mettent en avant l'importance de la maîtrise de l'homéostasie métallique dans la production de certaines enzymes lignolytiques. La présence de manganèse est en effet nécessaire à la production des manganèses peroxydases, alors qu'à l'inverse une carence permettra la production de lignines peroxydases. Cependant, la caractérisation de transporteurs impliqués dans le contrôle de l'homéostasie métallique n'a fait l'objet de recherches poussées que chez le champignon modèle S. cerevisiae. L'analyse des transporteurs putatifs de manganèse de 26 espèces fongiques représentant 20 ordres fongiques a permis de constituer un répertoire de 281 transporteurs de manganèse. L'analyse phylogénétique a permis de mettre en évidence que des processus de duplication, mais également de délétion, avaient eu lieu en particulier chez S. cerevisiae. Cependant ce dernier ne possède pas de transporteurs de manganèse appartenant à la famille des Cation Diffusion Facilitator. Dans le génome de P. chrysosporium, onze transporteurs de manganèse appartenant à différentes familles de gènes ont été identifiés. Le niveau d'expression de ces différents gènes a été étudié notamment en condition lignolytique. Ces transporteurs ont également été clonés afin de vérifier leurs fonctions par complémentation en système hétérologue. Cette étude a permis de mettre en évidence les transporteurs de manganèse putatifs de nombreux organismes fongiques, ainsi que l'absence d'une famille de transporteurs impliquée dans les mouvements de manganèse chez S. cerevisiae / P. chrysosporium is a saprophytic fungus able to degrade many xenobiotics which makes it particularly attractive for applications in bioremediation. Several publications highlight the importance of metal homeostasis in the production of lignolytics enzymes. Indeed the presence of manganese is required for the production of manganese peroxidase. Conversely, deficiency allows the production of lignins peroxidases. Characterization of transporters involved in the control of manganese homeostasis has been only researched in the model S. cerevisiae. Analysis of putative manganese transporters of 26 fungal species representing 20 orders of fungus was used to form a repertory of 281 transporters of manganese. Phylogenetic analysis allowed to highlight that duplication process, but also deletion, had occurred particularly in S. cerevisiae. However this one is devoid of transporters belonging to the manganese Cation Diffusion Facilitator. Eleven transporters belonging to gene families in which manganese transporters have been found were identified in the P. chrysosporium?s genome. Expression level of these genes was examined particularly in ligninolytic condition. Transporters have also been cloned in order to verify their functions by complementation in heterologous system. This study allowed to identify putative manganese transporters of numerous fungal organisms and the lack of a transporters family involved in the manganese transport in S. cerevisiae

Hypertension affects 1 in 3 adults and is the single greatest risk factor for premature death. Salt-sensitive hypertension occurs in approximately 50% of hypertensive patients and results in a 3-fold increase in the risk of adverse cardiovascular events. However, the pathophysiology of salt-sensitive hypertension remains to be fully elucidated. There has been increased interest in the interaction between the sympathetic nervous system and the kidney and how that interaction mediates sodium excretion to drive the development of salt-sensitivity. Previous studies show that sympathetic over-activity increases expression of the sodium chloride cotransporter (NCC) resulting in increased NCC-mediated sodium reabsorption, and the development of salt-sensitive hypertension. In this thesis, I show the effect of increased norepinephrine (NE) and high salt intake in salt-resistant vs. salt-sensitive rat phenotypes on blood pressure regulation, NCC activity, and the adrenoreceptor-mediated regulatory kinase network signal transduction pathway. A high salt diet 1) exacerbates NE-induced hypertension in salt-resistant Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and 2) results in hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive (DSS) rats. In contrast to salt-resistant phenotypes (SD & Dahl salt-resistant), dietary sodium-evoked suppression of NCC expression and activity is prevented in salt-sensitive rats (SD-NE infusion & DSS) - I show that this occurs through a failure of a high salt intake to suppress renal OxSR1, SPAK, and WNK1 (NCC regulatory proteins). I demonstrate that α1-adrenoreceptors are responsible for mediating the salt-sensitive component of hypertension and restore dietary sodium-evoked suppression of the NCC via a predominant OxSR1 pathway. Chronic β-adrenoreceptor antagonism significantly reduces blood pressure in NE-mediated hypertension. How the body senses salt remains unknown, but my data show that selective removal of the afferent renal nerves prevents dietary sodium-evoked suppression of NCC expression and activity resulting in salt-sensitive hypertension, suggesting that the afferent renal nerves play an important role as a sodium-sensing mechanism. Overall, these data demonstrate that attenuated afferent renal nerve feedback drives renal efferent nerve release of NE to prevent the downregulation of the NCC via an α1-adrenergic receptor-gated WNK1-OxSR1 signal transduction pathway to evoke the development of salt-sensitive hypertension.

Growth and development of plant body is dependent on correct and effective integration of information about current deployment of its body parts, as well as on perception and transduction of inputs from environment. Multiple developmental processes within plant body are determined by specific and tightly controlled distribution of molecule with unique signaling mission within plant development - auxin. Spatial distribution of auxin is co-determined by plethora of tightly controlled processes, and the polar auxin transport plays unique role among them. PIN proteins are the plant-specific family of secondary transporters driving movement of auxin across membranes. With their frequent asymmetrical localization within cells, specific expression patterns in developing tissues and their reactiveness to external cues they secure unique, dynamic and asymmetric distribution of auxin within the plant body. This dissertation thesis is focused on characterization of the role different PIN proteins play in determining cellular auxin homeostasis and consequent formation of auxin gradients. Controlled overexpression of PIN proteins in tobacco cells showed, that PIN4 and to some extent also PIN6, function as the direct auxin efflux carriers. In the cellular auxin transport they play the role analogous to other...

No description available.

Foram analisados os efeitos da manobra de preensão manual (PM) na autorregulação encefálica (AE) dinâmica, através de um método não estacionário que utiliza o modelo de autorregressão de médias móveis. Doze indivíduos saudáveis foram orientados a realizar a manobra de PM durante 11 minutos com contração muscular constante e carga de 30% da força máxima. Registraram-se continuamente as medidas da velocidade do fluxo sanguíneo nas artérias cerebrais médias, pressão parcial de CO2 (PCO2) no ar expirado e pressão arterial (PA) não invasiva, durante o repouso (5 min), PM (3 min) e recuperação (3 min). A pressão crítica de fechamento (PCrF) e o produto área-resistência (PAR) foram obtidos empregando-se o método do primeiro harmônico. O índice de autorregulação encefálica (IAE) variável no tempo foi calculado através do modelo da autorregressão de médias móveis. As variáveis foram expressas em porcentagem de variação em relação aos valores obtidos no repouso (30 s previamente ao início da manobra de PM). Não houve alteração significativa da PCO2 do ar expirado durante MP. A PA aumentou continuamente durante a manobra (27% dos valores basais), enquanto que a velocidade do fluxo sanguíneo encefálico elevou-se inicialmente e alcançou um platô (15% dos valores basais). A elevação da PA aumentou o PAR, possivelmente devido à vasoconstricção arteriolar encefálica, o que refletiria a atuação do componente miogênico na regulação do fluxo sanguíneo encefálico; por outro lado, a PCrF reduziu-se, o que representa a ação do mecanismo metabólico. O IAE apresentou diminuição tanto no início quanto ao fim da manobra de PM; este achado pode estar relacionado à reação de alerta e/ou à diferença no tempo de resposta dos mecanismos envolvidos na adaptação neurovascular (mecanismos miogênico, metabólico e neurogênico). Conclui-se que o estudo da AE dinâmica com o modelo da autorregressão de médias móveis, durante a manobra de PM, pode ampliar os conhecimentos acerca das modificações hemodinâmicas encefálicas durante o exercício e elucidar aspectos ainda pouco conhecidos da resposta fisiológica do organismo / We investigated the effect of handgrip (HG) maneuver on time-varying estimates of dynamic cerebral autoregulation (CA), using the autoregressive moving average (ARMA) technique. Twelve healthy subjects were recruited to perform HG maneuver during 3 minutes with 30% of maximum contraction force. Cerebral blood flow velocity, end-tidal CO2 pressure (PETCO2), and noninvasive arterial blood pressure (ABP) were continuously recorded during baseline, HG and recovery. Critical closing pressure (CrCP), resistance areaproduct (RAP), and time-varying autoregulation index (ARI) were obtained. PETCO2 did not show significant changes during HG maneuver. Whilst ABP increased continuously during the maneuver, to reach 27% of its baseline value, CBFV raised to a plateau approximately 15% above baseline. This was sustained by a parallel increase in RAP, suggestive of myogenic vasoconstriction, and a reduction in CrCP that could be associated with metabolic vasodilation. The time-varying ARI index dropped at the beginning and end of the maneuver (p<0.005), which could be related to corresponding alert reactions or to different time constants of the myogenic, metabolic and/or neurogenic mechanisms. Changes in dynamic CA during HG suggest a complex interplay of regulatory mechanisms during static exercise that should be considered when assessing the determinants of cerebral blood flow and metabolism

Objetivo:Caracterizar o padrão de homeostase (proliferação celular e apoptose) de tecido endometrial eutópico e ectópico de coelhas submetidas à indução de lesões de endometriose por modelo experimental já conhecido, quatro e oito semanas após o procedimento de implantação endometrial. Material e Métodos:Estudo experimental animal sendo utilizado 20 coelhas adultas Nova Zelândia, fêmeas e virgens, submetidas à laparotomia para indução da lesão de endometriose, através da ressecção de um corno uterino e fixação no peritônio pélvico de fragmento de 5mm. As coelhas foram divididas em dois grupos de 10 animais, sendo os animais do grupo 1, sacrificados após 4 semanas da indução da lesão endometrial ectópica e os do grupo 2 após 8 semanas. A lesão foi excisada para análise histológica juntamentecom o corno uterino contralateral, comprovando a presença de tecido endometrial glandular e estromal. Reações de imunohistoquímica foram realizadas, no tecido endometrial eutópico e ectópico, para proliferação celular através do PCNA e para apoptose através do fas, na glândula e estroma, sendo obtido o índice de proliferação celular (IPC) e de apoptose (IA) através do número de células marcadas por 1000 contadas, e o índice dehomeostase tecidual através do coeficiente entre o IPC e IA. Resultados:Observou-se maior índice de proliferação no tecido ectópico, tanto glandular como estromal, quando comparado com o endométrio eutópico, com 4 e 8 semanas após a indução da lesão. Contudo, quando as lesões ectópicas foram comparadas entre si, com 4 e 8 semanas, não foi observada diferença significativa. Quando comparamos o índice de apoptose, observamos que não houve diferença entre o tecido ectópico e o eutópico, tanto glandular como estromal nas lesões induzidas e analisadas com 4 semanas, porém no tecido glandular das lesões analisadas com 8 semanas houve diferença significativa entre a lesão ectópica e o tecido endometrialeutópico 0,0819 ± 0,0213 e 0,0995 ± 0,01336, respectivamente (p=0,04). A homeostase tecidual foi calculada e observou-se uma tendência destes tecidos a proliferação, sempre com índicesde homeostase tecidual (IPC/IA) acima de 1. Conclusão:As lesões ectópicas parecem ter uma proliferação celular maior que o endométrio eutópico levando a uma tendência ao crescimento tecidual descontrolado nas lesões de endometriose induzidas. / Objective: To characterize the pattern of tissue homeostasis (cell proliferation and apoptosis) of eutopic and ectopic endometrium in rabbitsfour and eight weeks after endometrium implantation for induction of endometriotic lesions by experimental standardized method. Material and methods: Animal experimental study with 20 female, virgins and adult New Zeland rabbits, submitted to laparotomy for endometriosis induction by resection of one uterine horn, isolation of the correspondent endometrium and fixation of a 5mm tissue segment to the pelvic peritoneum. The animals were divided in two groups of 10, group 1 was sacrificed after 4 weeks of endometriosis induction and group 2 eight weeks after the procedure. The lesion was excised for later histological analysis together with the opposite uterine horn, just to verify the presence of endometrial gland and stroma. Immunohistochemistry reactions were performed in order to study cell proliferation (by PCNA technique) and apoptosis (by fastechnique) in the eutopic and ectopic endometrium, and a Cell Proliferation Index (CPI) and an Apoptotic Index (AI) werecalculated based on these findings, considering the number of marked cellsper 1000 counted cells. The Homeostatic Tissue Index (HTI) was considered to be the relation between CPI and AI (CPI/AI). Gland and stroma were analyzed separately. Results: There was an increase in the CPI of the ectopic tissue, considering gland and stroma, after four and eight weeks of endometriosis induction when comparing to the eutopic one. However, when comparing the ectopic lesions, there was no difference between four and eight weeks of induction. Analyzing the only the AI, there was no difference between the eutopic and the ectopic endometrium with four weeks,nevertheless there was a significant difference in the glandular tissue of the lesions with eight weeks when comparing eutopic and ectopic tissues (0.0819 ± 0.0213 e 0.0995 ± 0.01336, respectively (p=0,04)). Based on HTI there was a tendency to cell proliferation on these tissues, always with and HTI (CPI/AI) higher than 1. Conclusions: Ectopic lesions seem to have a higher cell proliferation than the eutopic endometrium, tending to present an uncontrolled tissue growth in the endometriotic inducted lesions.

De nombreux insectes vivent en association avec des endosymbiotes se transmettant de mère à descendants. Du point de vue de leurs hôtes, certains de ces symbiotes sont obligatoires tandis que d'autres sont facultatifs. Alors qu'elle appartient le plus souvent à cette deuxième catégorie, la bactérie intracellulaire Wolbachia est devenue obligatoire chez certains de ses hôtes. C'est notamment le cas chez deux hyménoptères parasitoïdes de drosophiles du genre Asobara. Chez A. tabida, il a été montré que Wolbachia était nécessaire à la production d'œufs viables et que le défaut d'ovogenèse chez les femelles privées de leur symbiote est associé à une perturbation de leur homéostasie oxydative. Nous avons par conséquent étudié l'impact de composés antioxydant et pro-oxydant sur les traits d'histoire de vie de l'hôte et la densité symbiotique, afin de déterminer dans quelle mesure l'homéostasie oxydative pourrait être impliquée dans la coévolution entre Wolbachia et son hôte, au point de conduire à la dépendance de ce dernier. Chez certaines populations d'A. japonica, la coévolution avec Wolbachia induisant de la parthénogenèse thélytoque a entraîné la perte de la capacité des femelles à se reproduire sexuellement. Nous avons recherché les bases mécanistiques de cette perte de traits en comparant les transcriptomes et les profils d'hydrocarbures cuticulaires – des molécules qui peuvent notamment jouer le rôle de phéromones sexuelles – de femelles sexuées et asexuées / Many insects live in association with maternally transmitted endosymbiont. From their host point of view, some of those symbionts are obligatory, whereas others are facultative. Although it usually belongs to this second category, the intracellular bacterium Wolbachia has become obligatory in some of its hosts. This is notably the case in two drosophila parasitoid of the genus Asobara (Hymenoptera). It has been shown that Wolbachia was necessary for egg production in A. tabida, and that the failure of oogenesis in females cured of their symbiont is associated with a perturbation of their oxidative homeostasis. We therefore studied the impact of antioxidant and pro-oxidant compounds on the host life-history traits and the symbiotic density to determine the extent to which the oxidative homeostasis could be involved in host–Wolbachia coevolution, and in the evolution of the dependence of the host to its symbiont. In some populations of A. japonica, the coevolution with a thelytoky-inducing Wolbachia led to the loss of the females’ ability to sexually reproduce. We researched the mechanistic bases of this loss of traits by comparing the transcriptomes and the cuticular hydrocarbons – molecules that can play the role of sex pheromones – of sexual and asexual females

Le réticulum endoplasmique (RE) joue un rôle majeur dans la conformation des protéines. L’accumulation de protéines non- ou mal-conformées dans le RE induit un stress qui peut être résolu par la réponse aux protéines mal-conformées (UPR). Un stress chronique du RE entraine une apoptose dépendante de l’UPR et se traduit par un déséquilibre de l’homéostasie tissulaire. Bien que l’apoptose dépendante d’un stress du RE soit observée et à l’origine d’un grand nombre de maladies humaines, les mécanismes pro-apoptotiques ainsi que ceux favorisant l’homéostasie tissulaire en réponse à un stress chronique du RE restent à ce jour méconnus. Cette thèse apporte une meilleure compréhension de ces mécanismes grâce à un nouveau modèle d’induction de stress du RE chez la drosophile basé sur la surexpression de la préséniline. L’apoptose observée dans ce modèle dépend d’une répression au moins transcriptionnelle du gène anti-apoptotique diap1 par la branche PERK/ATF4 de l’UPR, alors que les voies pro-apoptotiques classiquement impliquées dans l’apoptose en réponse à un stress du RE chez les mammifères ne semblent pas être impliquées. Par ailleurs, la branche PERK/ATF4 active la voie JNK par l’intermédiaire de la petite GTPase Rac1 et de la MAP3K Slipper qui sont activées dans les cellules apoptotiques. Cette activation aboutit à l’expression de Dilp8, un peptide ressemblant à l’insuline qui cause un retard de développement et permet ainsi de remplacer partiellement les cellules éliminées par apoptose. Dans notre modèle, les mécanismes classiquement décrits dans le maintien de l’homéostasie tissulaire chez la drosophile tels que la prolifération compensatoire ou la réparation des tissus ne semblent pas avoir de rôle majeur. Ces résultats établissent, une nouvelle voie qui participe à l’homéostasie tissulaire dans un nouveau modèle de stress chronique du RE / The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) plays a major role in protein folding. The accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER induces a stress which can be resolved by the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR). The chronicity of ER-stress leads to UPR-induced apoptosis and in turn to an unbalance of tissue homeostasis. Although ER stress-dependent apoptosis is observed in a great number of devastating human diseases, how cells activate apoptosis and promote tissue homeostasis after chronic ER-stress remains poorly understood. During my thesis we have established of a novel model of chronic ER-stress using the Drosophila wing imaginal disc as a model system. We have validated that Presenilin (Psn) overexpression induces chronic ER-stress in Drosophila associated to a PERK/ATF4-dependent apoptosis requiring the down-regulation of the anti-apoptotic diap1 gene. Interestingly, the classical pro-apoptotic pathways described in mammals do not seem implicated in Psn-overexpression-dependent apoptosis. PERK/ATF4 also activated the JNK pathway through the small GTPase Rac1 and the MAP3K Slipper activation in apoptotic cells, leading to the expression of Dilp8. This insulin-like peptide caused a developmental delay, which partially allowed the replacement of apoptotic cells. The other mechanisms involved in tissue homeostasis in Drosophila, i.e. compensatory homeostasis and wound healing, do not seem to have a major role in our model. These results establish a new pathway that participates in tissue homeostasis thanks to a novel chronic Drosophila ER stress model

Dans les cellules végétales, les canaux et les transporteurs anioniques sont essentiels pour les fonctions clés telles que la nutrition, l'homéostasie ionique et la tolérance aux stress biotiques ou abiotiques. Chez Arabidopsis thaliana, les membres de la famille CLC (pour ChLoride Channel), situés sur le tonoplaste, sont requis pour l'homéostasie du nitrate (AtCLCa et AtCLCb) ou impliqués dans la tolérance au sel (AtCLCc).Dans mon travail de thèse, j’ai identifié et caractérisé un canal chlorure, AtCLCg, chez A. thaliana. L'étude de la protéine fusion AtCLCg::GFP a révélé que cette protéine est localisée sur le tonoplaste. Deux lignés mutants indépendants d’insertion ADN-T, atclcg ont été sélectionnés. Les études physiologiques sur ces deux lignés ont démontré qu’AtCLCg joue un rôle dans le passage de chlorure mais pas dans l'homéostasie du nitrate au travers du tonoplaste. En effet, aucune différence de contenu en nitrate (NO3-) racinaire et foliaire n’a été observée entre le sauvage et les mutants dans nos conditions. Par contre, les plantes mutantes présentent un phénotype par rapport au sauvage lorsqu'elles se développent sur milieu de croissance contenant 75 mM NaCl: (i) une diminution de 20% de la masse fraîche ; (ii) une diminution de 16% de la longueur de racines primaires et une réduction de 19% du nombre de racines secondaires ; (iii) une sur-accumulation de 21% et 26% de chlorure et sulfate foliaire, respectivement. Ces phénotypes sont abolis chez les lignés complétées avec 35S::AtCLCg. De plus, les mutants atclcg présentent un phénotype similaire à la présence de 75 mM KCl, mais aucune différence n'est détectée en réponse à 140 mM mannitol. Ce résultat suggère que le phénotype d'hypersensibilité des mutants atclcg dépend du chlorure et non du l'effet osmotique du stress salin.Sachant qu’AtCLCg et AtCLCc partagent un haut degré d'homologie, environ 75% d'identité au niveau des protéines, et que les deux sont impliquées dans la réponse au stress salin de la plante, nous avons généré le double mutant atclcc/atclcg. L’analyse phénotypique a montré que le double mutant ne présente pas un phénotype additif sur milieu de stress 75 mM NaCl. En parallèle, l'analyse de l'expression des gènes a montré qu’AtCLCg est réprimé dans le fond mutant atclcc, et inversement. Par ailleurs, l'analyse de l'expression de gène rapporteur démontre que PAtCLCg::GUS est fortement exprimé dans les cellules du mésophylle alors qu’une forte expression de PAtCLCc::GUS dans les cellules de garde et le pollen est observé. Ainsi, l’ensemble de ces résultats montrent que ces deux protéines AtCLCc et AtCLCg sont impliquées dans la réponse au stress salin de la plante, mais elles n’ont pas de fonction redondante. / In plant cells, anion channels and transporters are essential for key functions such as nutrition, ion homeostasis and, resistance to biotic or abiotic stresses. In Arabidopsis thaliana, members of the ChLoride Channel (CLC) family located on the tonoplast have been shown to be required for nitrate homeostasis (AtCLCa, AtCLCb) or involved in salt tolerance (AtCLCc). In this study, we identified and characterized the chloride channel AtCLCg in A. thaliana. Use of an AtCLCg:GFP fusion revealed the localization of this protein on the tonoplast. Studies on the disruption of the AtCLCg gene by a T-DNA insertion in two independent lines demonstrated that AtCLCg is involved in response to salt stress and not in nitrate homeostasis in our conditions. Although no difference in shoot and root NO3- content is observed, mutant plants show a phenotype compared to wild-type when they are grown on 75 mM NaCl: (i) a decrease by 20% of total plant fresh weight; (ii) a diminution by 16% of primary root length and a reduction by 19% of secondary root number; (iii) an over-accumulation of chloride and sulfate in shoots by 21% and 26% respectively. These phenotypes are abolished in complemented lines with 35S::AtCLCg. atclcg mutants show a similar phenotype in the presence of 75 mM KCl, but no difference is detected in response to 140 mM mannitol. This result suggests that the hypersensitivity phenotype of atclcg mutant depends on the ionic component and not on osmotic effect of salt stress.Knowing that AtCLCg and AtCLCc share a high degree of homology, approximately 75% of identity at protein level, and both are involved in response to salt stress, we generated a clcc/clcg double mutant. Phenotypic analysis showed that the two KO mutations do not have additive effect under salt stress of 75 mM NaCl. In parallel, gene expression analysis showed that AtCLCg is repressed in the clcc mutant background, and conversely. Expression analysis of reporter gene displayed a different pattern for PAtCLCg::GUS, strongly expressed in mesophyll cells, compared with a strong expression of PAtCLCc::GUS in guard cells and pollen. Altogether these results demonstrate that both AtCLCc and AtCLCg are involved in response to salt stress but they are not functionally redundant.