Bibliography: pages 269-280. / The focus of this thesis on African women's experiences as domestic workers results from the fact that the majority of women within the African population in Cape Town are employed in this sector of economy. Further, the African working class is in a peculiar position as a result of the strict enforcement of the Coloured Labour Preference Policy. This policy ensured the almost total exclusion of the African population from decent housing and education as well as employment. In fact, the policy has hamstrung almost every aspect of the African population's life. The Coloured Labour Preferential Policy was coupled with the strict enforcement of influx control, governed by the Urban Areas Act No. 25 of 1945 as amended. Worst hit by this law were the African women. An attempt was made to understand the experiences of African women both in and outside their work situation. The examination of their gendered experiences of 'race' and class divisions has led to the identification of a number of issues, among them poverty, exploitation as rightless workers and payment of low wages, fragmentation of family life and subordination in marriage relations, childcare problems, housing problems and isolation as mothers and workers. Further, their dreams, which include a wish for securing property, a secure family life and educating their children, as well as self-employment, are all indications of their deprivation and exploitation as women. In this thesis gender has been prioritised, as it emerged as the prime feature of African women's experiences of social divisions. Being a woman in a society divided by 'race' and class, has created hierarchies which carry unequal relationships between employer and employee and the payment of low wages. The privatised nature of this unequal relationship is the key to the oppression and exploitation of domestic workers. Moreover, the impact of the double day on African Women domestic workers has resulted in particular experiences of exploitation and oppression. Because of the limited material currently available on domestic workers, this study is seen as a contribution to the study of women as well as a contribution to a gender-sensitive, working class history of Cape Town. The selected literature that has been reviewed has left the gendered experiences of African women unexposed within their households. The focus has been on the work situation only. Failure to recognise or identify these gendered experiences within both class and 'race' divisions results in obscuring the daily struggles that African women face regarding housing, family life and childcare facilities. The review of the two commissions of enquiry, namely the Riekert and Wiehahn Commissions has shown that the State is still unresponsive to the needs of women as workers and in particular, as domestic workers. Riekert has tied the availability of housing to employment, thus excluding a large number of women in the Cape Town urban area.

After the turn of the new millennium, the transformation of the'World Factory'- China under the restructuring Asian production network has been increasingly witnessed. Due to the changing dynamics at local, national, and global levels, production relocations of the labor-intensive industries from coastal China to the developing countries nearby, such as Vietnam, have been observed. Yet, little attention so far has been focused to see how these industries and the firms have been relocated out of China and reorganized their production networks. Description based on online resource; title from PDF title page, viewed November 12, 2020. Since the last decades, the global production network (GPN) approach in economic geography has been widely applied to study geographically dispersed production activities. Notably, the newly developed'GPN 2.0' theory has offered a framework to systemically understand the ways the transnational corporations (TNCs) have interacted with various firms and non-firm actors to orchestrate their production networks at different scales. Hence, drawing mainly upon the notions from the GPN 2.0 theory, particularly the firm-specific strategies, as well as the ideas from other social science studies, such as the institutional perspective, to develop a more comprehensive analytical framework, and taking the consumer electronics industry as a case, this thesis looks into the current production relocation from China to Vietnam, and the restructuring of the electronics production networks, particularly in Asia, since the late 00s. To be more explicit, based on extensive field investigation since December 2017, especially in-depth interviews in both host and home regions, the current study examines, firstly, a broader picture of the restructuring of the global and Asian electronics production networks and the participation of Vietnam into the networks; secondly and more specifically, how firms from different origins, including the relatively established TNCs from Asian newly industrialized economies (NIEs) and the emerging TNCs (ETNCs) from emerging economies, such as China, have spatially and organizationally reconfigured their cross-border production networks in Vietnam. This thesis argues that the restructuring of the Asian electronics production networks is not only a sequential production relocation solely led by TNCs from Japan and the NIEs, but it is also driven by the ETNCs from China. Changing roles of emerging and developing countries, such as Vietnam as an assembly hub and an emerging market and China as an intermediate good's exporter, in the restructuring process have been witnessed. This study also illustrates that various closeness of the firm-state relationships has led to different results of the extra-firm bargaining process between the TNCs and the multi-scalar host institutions and thus the production relocation and the strategic coupling outcomes. As for the ETNCs originated from China, the current study showcases that the inherent legacies of the home institutions embedded in these firms have significantly impacted both spatial and organizational configurations of their production networks in Vietnam. Apart from empirically updating the restructuring and regionalization of the electronics production networks in Asia, particularly in developing Southeast Asia, this thesis enriches the economic geography literature primarily by taking the actors from the emerging and developing economies, which have been largely ignored in previous conceptualizations of the GPNs, particularly the ETNCs as well as the multi-scalar institutions in both host and home regions, into account.

After the turn of the new millennium, the transformation of the'World Factory'- China under the restructuring Asian production network has been increasingly witnessed. Due to the changing dynamics at local, national, and global levels, production relocations of the labor-intensive industries from coastal China to the developing countries nearby, such as Vietnam, have been observed. Yet, little attention so far has been focused to see how these industries and the firms have been relocated out of China and reorganized their production networks. Description based on online resource; title from PDF title page, viewed November 12, 2020. Since the last decades, the global production network (GPN) approach in economic geography has been widely applied to study geographically dispersed production activities. Notably, the newly developed'GPN 2.0' theory has offered a framework to systemically understand the ways the transnational corporations (TNCs) have interacted with various firms and non-firm actors to orchestrate their production networks at different scales. Hence, drawing mainly upon the notions from the GPN 2.0 theory, particularly the firm-specific strategies, as well as the ideas from other social science studies, such as the institutional perspective, to develop a more comprehensive analytical framework, and taking the consumer electronics industry as a case, this thesis looks into the current production relocation from China to Vietnam, and the restructuring of the electronics production networks, particularly in Asia, since the late 00s. To be more explicit, based on extensive field investigation since December 2017, especially in-depth interviews in both host and home regions, the current study examines, firstly, a broader picture of the restructuring of the global and Asian electronics production networks and the participation of Vietnam into the networks; secondly and more specifically, how firms from different origins, including the relatively established TNCs from Asian newly industrialized economies (NIEs) and the emerging TNCs (ETNCs) from emerging economies, such as China, have spatially and organizationally reconfigured their cross-border production networks in Vietnam. This thesis argues that the restructuring of the Asian electronics production networks is not only a sequential production relocation solely led by TNCs from Japan and the NIEs, but it is also driven by the ETNCs from China. Changing roles of emerging and developing countries, such as Vietnam as an assembly hub and an emerging market and China as an intermediate good's exporter, in the restructuring process have been witnessed. This study also illustrates that various closeness of the firm-state relationships has led to different results of the extra-firm bargaining process between the TNCs and the multi-scalar host institutions and thus the production relocation and the strategic coupling outcomes. As for the ETNCs originated from China, the current study showcases that the inherent legacies of the home institutions embedded in these firms have significantly impacted both spatial and organizational configurations of their production networks in Vietnam. Apart from empirically updating the restructuring and regionalization of the electronics production networks in Asia, particularly in developing Southeast Asia, this thesis enriches the economic geography literature primarily by taking the actors from the emerging and developing economies, which have been largely ignored in previous conceptualizations of the GPNs, particularly the ETNCs as well as the multi-scalar institutions in both host and home regions, into account.

Bibliography: pages 233-248. / This dissertation seeks to examine an area of South African historiography which has largely been ignored, that is, domestic labour. It posits a relationship between working class women, domestic labour paid and unpaid. The material has been arranged around the primary objective of examining the silence around domestic labour and highlighting the gender content of domestic work. It is divided into two parts. The first part examines the conceptualization of class and gender struggles, while the second part examines aspects of working class women's experience of this. Chapter One deals with why women have been ignored in recorded history; Chapter Two examines Marxist approaches to the Woman Question. Chapter Three examines the silence arourid women's experience in South African historiography, while Chapter Four is a critical examination of the recorded history of domestic workers. Chapter Five examines aspects of black working class women's experience of domestic labour in their own families, while Chapter Six documents the experience of a group of organized workers in Cape Town. The study concludes that the way forward is to develop a gender sensitive class analysis as outlined in the work of Lise Vogel. This will open up new areas for research, for example, the rise of the public and private dichotomy, the separation of productive and reproductive labour, the ideology of motherhood and sexuality as well as the changing nature of the social construction of gender identity.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how selected factors are related to the time children in single parent families spend in the household tasks of meal preparation; dishwashing; shopping; housecleaning; maintenance of home, yard, car and pets and nonphysical care of family members. The data for this study were collected from 89 female headed single-parent/ two-child households in the greater metropolitan Salt Lake City 1Utah area. Time use data were collected for mothers and their children between the ages of 6 and 17. There were 178 children in the 89 families , of which 150 were in the specified age range. It was not possible to select a random sample for this study. Thus, to reflect a random sample of singleparent/ two-child urban Utah households, data were weighted using standard weighting procedures and 1980 census figures. Two instruments were used to collect data from respondents, a time diary and a questionnaire. Research that has examined children in single-parent households has compared their time allocations to those of children in two-parent households. There has been no research that has specifically examined variations in the time spent by children in single-parent families that could be related to their household work. Multiple regression was used to analyze the relationship between a child's age, gender, birth order, gender of sibling, mother's time in paid work and school attendance, household income, season of the year, household equipment and certain household conditions with the amount of time children of single-parent families spent in the six selected household tasks. This study found that children of single-parent families spent varying amounts of time on household tasks depending on the task, age of the child, gender of the child, gender of the sibling, mother's time in paid work and school attendance, household income, season of the year, household equipment and certain household conditions.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between attitudes toward the division of household tasks and the amount of time spent accomplishing them by Utah husbands and wives. The sample was 200 husbands and 203 wives residing in Iron, Washington, and Salt Lake Counties . A questionnaire was used to measure the respondents' attitudes toward the division of household labor and two, 24-hour time diaries were used to record time expenditures. Hypotheses regarding traditional and non-traditional attitudes related to the amount of time spent in traditional female t asks, traditional male tasks and time spent in all household tasks were tested. Analysis of variance and Pearson's Product Moment Correlation were used to analyze the data. No statistically significant results were found when husbands' and wives' attitudes toward the allocation of household tasks were related to the amount of time spent in traditional female tasks, traditional male tasks, and total housework It was concluded that attitudes towards the division of household tasks as measured in this research did not predict or influence the amount of time spent accomplishing household tasks.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Most poverty studies ignore the dimension of time and are merely concerned if an individual meets certain money-metric or non-income welfare (e.g., access to services and asset ownership) criteria. They fail to recognise the limited time (24hours per day) available to complete tasks and the added difficulties they have even though there is an abundance of money-metric and asset-related non-money-metric poverty studies. (Kim et al. 2014:1). For example, individuals/households deemed poor by standard measures cannot afford market alternatives to assist them with non-market work (like childcare). Therefore, they find themselves spending all their time in market and non-market work without taking time for rest and improving themselves.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Most poverty studies ignore the dimension of time and are merely concerned if an individual meets certain money-metric or non-income welfare (e.g., access to services and asset ownership) criteria. They fail to recognise the limited time (24hours per day) available to complete tasks and the added difficulties they have even though there is an abundance of money-metric and asset-related non-money-metric poverty studies. (Kim et al. 2014:1). For example, individuals/households deemed poor by standard measures cannot afford market alternatives to assist them with non-market work (like childcare). Therefore, they find themselves spending all their time in market and non-market work without taking time for rest and improving themselves. Recognising non-market work and the allocation of time allows for a greater understanding into the role of women and Africans whose non-market work are unrecognised by standard economic measures such as GDP (Ferrant 2014:1). There are also only a few in-depth studies on time poverty, but they fail to utilise the most current data. Therefore, this study seeks to provide insights into how household production impacts on South African welfare. It explores the income, time poor and the extent of time allocation differences for various personal characteristics. It estimates the likelihood of time poverty based on an individual’s time schedule and the factors which most likely results in time poverty. In this study, various time concepts and measures were explored adding to the scarcely found South African time poverty studies which lack in-depth exploration. At the same time the study highlighted household production, an aspect closely linked to time poverty which affects certain groups of people more (females and Africans), and its welfare implications completely ignored by standard measures of the economy. The study also aimed to examine the relationship between time and income poverty. The study utilised the 2000 and 2010 South African Time Use Survey data by focusing on two main themes: time use patterns (to better understand household production) and time poverty (to measure it and understands its relationship with income poverty). The descriptive results revealed that both mean SNA (System of National Accounts internationally agreed standard for production)) and non-SNA production time increased over time at the cost of the non-productive time. Also, mean paid and unpaid work increased over time.

Sweden is the most gender-equal country in Europe, but nevertheless, there are still flaws in  certain areas, especially within the walls of the household when it comes to chores and financial responsibility. This examination is a qualitative, semi-structured interview study. The selection of respondents in this study are six heterosexual couples in the age of 20-30 and 40-60 years old, who lives together. My theoretical points of departure are Bourdieus’s theory of habitus, as well as his theory of cultural capital, which I have chosen to call resources in this study, along with a concept of generation which defines by a number of other renown scientists in the area. The study came to show that the couples which partook, tries hard to weigh out for the injustices in their relationship connected to, for example, their habitus and resources. In this study, I refer to this as compensations. These compensations are sorted into three themes: education and income, the lack of a parent, together with age and time. The result showed that the couples divided their home finances as equal as possible, that the women had a lower income than the men if they didn’t have an education, and that the people who had grown up with a single parent had from a young age had to help out a lot with chores at home. It also showed that the older couples did not wanted to follow in their own parents footsteps, but instead they wanted to create a more equal relationship by helping each other more. The younger couples had the same point of view.   The conclusions I drew from this are that the women needed a higher education in order to make as much money as their male partner, but also in order to have the possibility of making even more. It also emerged that the respondents compensated a little extra if they themselves had experienced the lack of a parent, since they had learned the value of helping each other and not letting one person draw the heavy load all by oneself.   At last but not least, the study showed that the aspect of generation had some influence since the couples broke the old conventions in one way or the other, in terms of the norms of the male versus the female role in the household.

付記する学位プログラム名: グローバル生存学大学院連携プログラム / 京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第20540号 / 地環博第161号 / 新制||地環||32(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 舟川 晋也, 准教授 真常 仁志, 准教授 西前 出 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM