Neste trabalho, realiza-se uma leitura da obra de István Mészáros, especificamente das que versam sobre a temática do direito e dos direitos humanos. István Mészáros desenvolve uma crítica externa aos direitos humanos, não se tratando de uma crítica imanente do direito, mas de uma crítica que se desenvolve no âmbito de uma obra que engloba diversas questões filosóficas, sociológicas, econômicas, políticas e jurídicas. István Mészáros entende que os direitos humanos são uma questão de alta relevância quando o livre desenvolvimento das individualidades aparece como um horizonte da luta social e, por isso, o que está em jogo é a superação das mediações de segunda ordem do sistema sociometabólico do capital e o desenvolvimento positivo de um sistema alternativo, que não exclui as mediações de primeira ordem, inclusive de uma superestrutura alternativa correspondente ao controle consciente da reprodução social pelos produtores associados. Neste sentido, o trabalho analisa o modo como István Mészáros examina a questão dos direitos humanos, propondo, a partir de tal análise, que há uma vigorosa metodologia crítica desenvolvida pelo autor. Neste sentido, conclui-se que a teoria de István Mészáros é de grande valia para compreender o modo como se deve lidar com a questão dos direitos humanos numa perspectiva crítica, isto é, numa perspectiva que leve em conta a necessária historicidade da normatividade alienada (medida externa) e se apoie nas mediações de primeira ordem para propor uma alternativa superestrutural viável ao novo contexto (medida interna, autodeterminação). / In this work, we make a reading of the work of István Mészáros, specifically those that deal with the themes of law and of human rights. István Mészáros develops a external critics to human rights, not an immanent critique of law, but a critique that develops within a work that encompasses many philosophical, sociological, economic, political and legal problems. István Mészáros seethat human rights are a matter of \"great importance\" when the \"free development of individualities\" appears as a horizon of social struggle and, therefore, what is at stake is the overcoming of second order mediations of the capitals sociometabolic system and the positive development of an alternative system, which does not exclude the first order mediations, including an alternative superstructure corresponding to the conscious control of social reproduction by the freely associated producers. In this sense, the work examines how István Mészáros examines the issue of human rights, proposing, from this analysis, that there is a vigorous critical methodology developed by the author. In this sense, it is concluded that the theory of István Mészáros is valuable to understand how one should deal with the issue of human rights in a critical perspective, i. e., a perspective that takes into account the necessary historicity of alienated normativity (external measure) and support the first order mediations to propose an alternative viable superstructure to the new context (as internal self-determination).

Introdução Historicamente, em razão da reprodução ocorrer nos corpos das mulheres, elas ficaram restritas à esfera doméstica. Apesar das mudanças ocorridas, especialmente em razão da entrada maciça de mulheres no mercado de trabalho, a dimensão social da reprodução, ou seja, o trabalho do cuidado, é ainda hoje realizado majoritariamente por elas, fazendo com que sejam discriminadas tendo, assim, restrito o exercício de seus direitos humanos. Objetivo O objetivo principal deste estudo foi verificar a pertinência de se propor o reconhecimento de uma nova categoria de direitos para mulheres que são mães, que quando garantidos, oferecem o suporte social necessário para o exercício da maternidade. Método - Trata-se de estudo empírico de natureza qualitativa, realizado com jovens mães acolhidas juntamente com seus filhos em uma instituição privada, sem fins lucrativos, cuja missão é resgatar a cidadania e desenvolver a auto-estima de jovens mães em situação de vulnerabilidade. Após a aprovação pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa, foi feita uma observação etnográfica da instituição. Posteriormente, foram realizadas oito entrevistas semi-estruturadas com as jovens mães residentes e analisados documentos institucionais. Os dados foram analisados a partir da construção de categorias a priori bem como a posteriori e interpretados à luz do referencial teórico adotado. Resultados - A análise documental do Direito descreve os direitos humanos das mulheres previstos na normativa nacional e internacional, bem como as teorias críticas feministas do Direito. Os resultados da pesquisa empírica, por sua vez, indicam que a instituição, apesar de algumas limitações, é capaz de, por um lado, oferecer às jovens mães o suporte social necessário ao exercício da maternidade e, de outro, romper o ciclo vicioso de miséria, vulnerabilidade e violência a que as jovens estavam submetidas antes do acolhimento. Conclusões A análise dos resultados permite que se proponha uma nova categoria de direitos humanos denominada direitos maternos que são compostos pelos direitos reprodutivos, direito à habitação, direito ao trabalho e à renda, e por fim, direitos sexuais que, em articulação, asseguram o exercício da maternidade de forma digna, promovendo assim a igualdade de gênero e não-discriminação das mulheres / Introduction Historically, the fact that reproduction occurs in the body of women justified their restriction in the domestic sphere. Despite the changes in recent decades, especially due to the massive entry of women into the labor market, they are still responsible for the work of care, which is the social dimension of reproduction. They are, for that reason, discriminated and have the exercise of their human rights limited. Objectives - The main objective of this study was to assess the pertinence of proposing the recognition of a new category of rights for women who are mothers, able to provide the social support necessary for motherhood. Methods - This is a qualitative empirical study, conducted with young mothers with their children, who live in a private, nonprofit institution, whose mission is to recover the citizenship and to rebuild the selfesteem of young mothers living in extremely vulnerable situations. After the approval of the research project by the Commission for Ethical Research, an ethnographic observation was conducted in the institution. Eight semi-structured interviews were done with the young women and institutional documents were verified. Data were analyzed in view of a set of a priori and a posteriori categories, which were interpreted in the light of the theoretical framework adopted. Results The documental analysis of the Law describe the human rights of women established in national and international regulations, as well as feminist critical theories of law. The results of the empirical research, by its turn, indicate that the institution, despite some limitations, offers the necessary social support for motherhood and is capable of breaking the vicious cycle of poverty, vulnerability and violence that young women experienced in their lives. Conclusions - The analysis of results allows the proposition of a new category of human rights, hereby called \'maternal rights\', which are composed of reproductive rights, housing rights, right to work and to income and, finally, sexual rights. Together, once guaranteed, they can ensure that the experience of motherhood will be lived with dignity, thereby promoting gender equality and non-discrimination against women

Although scholarship on human rights has burgeoned within literary studies in recent years, that scholarship primarily engages literature as an outlet for trauma and witnessing, rather than restoration and recovery. "The Art of Reconciliation in Rwanda" instead reflects upon the recuperative capacities of art to fuel State-led reconciliation programs. Concentrating on Rwandan literature, theater, film, and memorial sites following the 1994 genocide, I theorize the many literatures of reconciliation in terms of three distinct genres: transfiguration, trial, and memorialization. Existing debates about reconciliation within Rwanda have furthermore been dominated by social science and ethnographic research that wrongly reduce reconciliation to ethnic identity, thereby presuming that survivors, bystanders, and perpetrators only possess conflicting views over the national project to unify. But as the artworks I discuss differently indicate, Rwandan reconciliation has exceeded such formulaic categories to manifest in overlapping genres and vectors of identification that transcend ethnic divides. In my dissertation, genre thus offers a route to both creating and perceiving the “commonality within difference” so crucial to successful reconciliation politics.

This thesis explores the (re-)positioning of the EU border agency Frontex within a wider shift towards humanitarianism and human rights in EUropean border governance. By examining Frontex’s public self-representation through time, it shows that the agency has gradually appropriated humanitarianism and human rights, while at the same time continuing to rely on a conceptualisation of migration as a security issue. The thesis traces this development, outlining how the agency has increasingly mobilised all three discursive formations in its public narratives about itself, border controls, and unauthorised migration to EUrope. Seeking to move beyond analysing Frontex through its public documents and statements only, the thesis complements this analysis with insights gained through interviews and informal conversations with Frontex staff and guest officers, as well as participant observations at Frontex events and in joint operations between May 2013 and September 2014. Exploring the perceptions of those working for and with Frontex, it complicates common portrayals of Frontex as a unitary, rational actor in EUropean border governance. Instead, it argues that Frontex is better understood as a highly fragmented organisation situated in an ambiguous environment and faced with inconsistent and contradictory demands. Situated at the intersection of critical security studies and critical migration and border studies, this thesis seeks to make three contributions to these literatures: first, it argues that critical security studies would benefit from a cross-fertilisation with insights gained in new institutionalism, which add organisational dynamics as an additional layer of analysis to developments in broader security fields. Second, it provides insights into the relationships between the discursive formations of security, humanitarianism, and human rights in contemporary border governance. The thesis argues that the three formations, at times seen as opposed to one another, share a number of important commonalities that create the conditions of possibility for the appropriation of humanitarianism and human rights by security actors such as Frontex, and for the emergence of new coalitions of actors in the EUropean border regime; as security, humanitarian, and human rights actors share the goal of rendering EUropean border controls less (visibly) violent. Third, the thesis provides rare empirical insights into the security actor Frontex, which has remained relatively opaque and elusive despite attracting much interest within academic and activist communities alike.

Child sexual abuse is a heinous crime. It consists of a variety of pernicious practices which include, but are not limited to, online child pornography, rape and incest. Globally, an estimated 15 million female adolescents have been coerced into sex during their lifetime, whilst the figure for boys is unknown.1 In many instances, this crime is perpetrated by those who are closest to the victims. Child victims may be severely traumatised and as a result become dysfunctional members of society. Child sexual abuse harms the very fabric of society and society thus pays a heavy price for continuing to tolerate this crime. As such, as this crime predominantly takes place behind closed doors and victims only very rarely report cases,2 a comprehensive legislative and policy approach must be adopted in order to effectively combat child sexual abuse. Legislators around the world as well as the international community must therefore make combating child sexual abuse a priority. However, the question arises whether there exist difficulties and weaknesses within international law which contribute to the persistent problem of child sexual abuse. Accordingly, this research probes whether international law accords adequate protection to the rights of the children and, if not, whether it fails to adequately protect children from sexual abuse. For this purpose, a detailed examination of relevant UAE laws is undertaken in the form of a case study. It is argued that international law has failed to clearly establish norms and also lacks enforcement mechanisms. The main international instrument, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, fails to determine the age of the child. Instead, it empowers domestic law to do this. Other shortcomings also limit the effectiveness of international law, particularly implementation issues. In the context of the UAE, the fundamental problem is that cultural values entrenched in Islamic criminal and family law have not shown an understanding of the child sexual abuse paradigm. Instead, the honour ideology has been reinforced.

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My graduation thesis is engaged in vulnerable groups and human rights in Afghanistan. I defined women, children, handicapped and migrants as vulnerable groups. First of all I tried to describe contemporary situation and status of these vulnerable groups in Afghanistan. I tried to refer to all aspects of their vulnerability. In the next part I analyzed the roots of their vulnerability in detail. I concerned on environmental conditions, historic evolution, cultural background, economic development and development and stability of the state. In conclusion I tried to put forward a concept of solution, which should improve the situation of vulnerable groups and human rights in Afghanistan. The main actor of my analysis is a state, which from my point of view is the most important element of the development in Afghanistan. The important part of these questions is a collision of Western and Muslim culture or Afghan culture. This fact means a new very complicated dimension of vulnerable groups and human rights in Afghanistan.

Prohibition of torture in the international law The prohibition of torture and other forms of ill-treatment is universally recognized and is enshrined in all of the major international and regional human rights instruments. It is also a firmly rooted principle of customary international law, and as such, it is binding on all states at all times. All international instruments that contain the prohibiton of torture and ill- treatment recognize its absolute, non-derogable character. The purpose of my thesis is to analyse how views regarding torture have changed. I have focused on torture cases in last twenty years. Are people tortured more than in the past? In which countries is the situation worst? I specialised on european continent and on judgements of The European Court of Human Rights. I was trying to find out how many cases The European Court was dealing with and what treatment can be classified as torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. I have also asked the question if the understanding of what is torture has changed from the year 1991 until 2010. The thesis is composed of six chapters, first part is introduction, the second one mentions international and regional documents, in which prohibition of torture was recognized. The Third Chapter defines basic terminology used in the thesis....

Durante a ditadura (1964-85), a Anistia Internacional ofereceu assistência a presos políticos brasileiros e ajudou a divulgar no exterior as denúncias de tortura perpetradas por agentes da repressão do regime militar brasileiro. Este trabalho se detém sobre a atuação da Anistia Internacional em relação ao Brasil durante o período da ditadura. A fim de entender como se deu essa atuação, buscou-se analisar o processo de formação da Anistia, seu modus operandi na investigação de denúncias de violações de direitos humanos, e identificar os seus princípios e diretrizes. No exame sobre a assistência a presos políticos brasileiros, foi possível observar uma flexibilização dos princípios de foco no indivíduo e não-violência, que eram considerados pela organização como constitutivos da sua atuação no plano internacional. Além disso, reuniu-se documentação que indica que a decisão da Anistia de intensificar a defesa de presos políticos brasileiros, verificada a partir de 1969, não foi motivada somente pelo agravamento de sua situação. Deveu-se também à reformulação estratégica posta em prática pela organização após a grave crise interna que a AI atravessou em 1967. A nova estratégia pressupunha avanços na profissionalização que previam a expansão das atividades da Anistia para além da Europa, o que permitiu uma reformulação de seu trabalho em relação à América Latina e ao Brasil, onde sua atuação havia permanecido tímida até 1969. / During the Brazilian dictatorship (1964-85), Amnesty International assisted political prisoners and helped to publicize charges of torture against agents of the military regimes repressive apparatus. This work focuses on the activities of Amnesty during the period of Brazil\'s dictatorship; analyzing its modus operandi, core principles and objectives. Through a specific examination of Amnesty\'s work on Brazilian political prisoners, it is possible to observe how Amnesty adapted its organizational principles such as non-violence and the focus on individual cases during this time. In 1967, Amnesty experienced a severe internal crisis, which prompted the organization to set a new strategy of professionalization. These changes enabled Amnesty to expand its activities beyond Europe to Latin America, including Brazil, where before 1969 its presence had been minimal. The research shows how Amnestys decision to increase its focus on Brazilian political prisoners from 1969 onwards was not only due to the worsening plight of these prisoners but also motivated by a new agenda in the organisation itself.

Human rights are increasingly recognised as part of international law and politics, but they at times conflict with principles of state sovereignty and non-intervention. This thesis examines the conflict that exists between the order provided by states and various aspirations for justice as expressed in cases of international judicial interventions. It argues that a shift has taken place in international relations from a predominantly state-centric view of international law towards an increased recognition of principles of individual justice. The overarching theoretical and analytical framework of this thesis is based on the English School of International Relations and its pluralist and solidarist approaches to the conflict between order and justice. Pluralism emphasises order over justice whereas solidarism looks at ways of overcoming the conflict by recognising the mutual interdependence of order and justice. The framework chosen also integrates a constructivist approach and the ‘norm life cycle’ to explain how norms emerge and are internalised in international society. Through close textual analysis, this thesis examines four case studies as concrete expressions of the order and justice conflict: Pinochet and the House of Lords; the Congo versus Belgium at the ICJ; the establishment of the ad hoc war crimes tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia; and the creation of the International Criminal Court. It is argued that these cases reflect different stages of the norm life cycle and demonstrate normative developments that lead to changes in the rules of international society. The cases illustrate both acceptance as well as resistance to such developments which suggests that norm development is not a neat progression but rather a dynamic process. The overall argument of the thesis is that a development has taken place in international relations towards increased recognition and internalisation of human rights and their enforcement in the international order. This can be seen as a starting point for the creation of a more ‘just’ order.