El texto completo de este trabajo no está disponible en el Repositorio Académico UPC por restricciones de la casa editorial donde ha sido publicado. / This systematic review and meta-analysis tries to determine whether there is an association between the use of protease inhibitors (PIs) and the incidence of diabetes mellitus (DM) and/or metabolic syndrome (MS) in HIV-infected patients. A systematic literature search was performed using MEDLINE/PubMed, CENTRAL, LILACS, and EMBASE. Included articles were observational studies published on or prior to November 2015 that met specific inclusion criteria. Pooled relative risks (RRs) and hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated. Nine articles met the inclusion criteria, describing 13,742 HIV patients. Use of PIs was associated with the development of MS (RR: 2.11; 95% CI 1.28–3.48; p-value 0.003). No association between the use of PIs and development of DM was found: the HR for the incidence of DM among patients using PIs was 1.23 (95% CI 0.66–2.30; p-value: 0.51) and the RR was 1.25 (95% CI 0.99–1.58; p-value 0.06). Use of PIs in HIV-infected patients is associated with an increased risk of MS. No evidence of an increased risk of DM was found. However, because MS is a precursor to DM, it is possible that studies with a longer follow-up duration are needed in order to detect an association between PI use and onset of DM. / First, we would like to thank our families for all their support. Second, we would like to thank the Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, the Health Sciences Department, and the School of Medicine for their support and for all the tools they have provided throughout this process. Finally, we want to thanks to Dr Gwenyth O. Lee and Dr Daniela E. Kirwan for their comments. / Revisión por pares

Carta al editor / Revisión por pares

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The aim of this study is to investigate the perceived stigmatization of and discrimination against people who are HIV positive or people who are living with AIDS. One questionnaire was used to collect qualitative and quantitative data. Data collection was conducted for a period of three weeks in the Eastern Cape province at the Zwartwater area in Lady Frere and at the Queenstown (Frontier) Hospital. A sample of 170 (of the 900) females was interviewed, of which 100 were sequentially sampled from the community and 70 were sequentially sampled whilst they were queuing at the Queenstown (Frontier) Hospital for care. Households from the rural area were selected by visiting every fourth house on the route linking the houses in this area. At the hospital, selection started at the back of the queue and every sixth person was selected and interviewed. Scores were calculated for knowledge and attitudes towards people who are HIV positive and towards people who have AIDS. It was found that knowledge and attitude scores did not differ between the various age groups tested. It was furthermore found that an increased knowledge score improved attitudes towards people who are HIV-positive or have AIDS.

Um dos problemas mais crÃticos relacionados à coinfecÃÃo HIV/Tuberculose (TB) à a mortalidade associada. A infecÃÃo por HIV tem contribuÃdo para o aumento do nÃmero de casos de TB e ainda tem sido responsÃvel pelo aumento da mortalidade entre os pacientes coinfectados. Fortaleza, situada no Nordeste do Brasil, à um dos centros urbanos com maior incidÃncia de TB no paÃs. O presente trabalho avaliou caracterÃsticas clÃnicas, epidemiolÃgicas e fatores de risco relacionados a mortalidade por TB em pacientes coinfectados com HIV/Aids, maiores de 12 anos, residentes na cidade de Fortaleza-CE. Realizou-se estudo retrospectivo, descritivo e de caso-controle. Foram revisados dados em 262 prontuÃrios dos pacientes com TB ativa acompanhados em quatro ambulatÃrios de referÃncia para HIV/Aids em Fortaleza entre os anos de 2004-2008. O perfil desses pacientes à caracterizado por adultos jovens, baixa escolaridade, sendo comuns os hÃbitos de etilismo (41,98%), tabagismo (33,59%) e uso de drogas ilÃcitas (26,72%). A maioria (65,65%) apresentou TB pela primeira vez. Quanto à apresentaÃÃo clÃnica, a TB pulmonar foi observada em 50% dos casos. A maioria (62,98%) foi submetida a internamento hospitalar durante o tratamento da TB. O uso de antirretrovirias foi mais frequente nos casos que evoluÃram para cura ou tÃrmino de tratamento (88,0%). A letalidade foi de 11,45% e o coeficiente de abandono de 16,03%. Na anÃlise univariada, o indivÃduo separado/viÃvo tem 3,7 vezes mais chance de Ãbito por TB, e 100% dos casos novos foram a Ãbito. Exame de raio-X alterado apresentou uma proporÃÃo de 31% de Ãbitos. O diagnÃstico de HIV devido à TB foi fator protetor ao Ãbito (OR=0,25). A mÃdia da carga viral antes da TB foi superior no grupo dos casos (p=0,04). O inicio da TARV foi outro fator protetor para o Ãbito (OR=0,11). No modelo final da regressÃo logÃstica mÃltipla, observou-se que o indivÃduo que nÃo teve resposta ao tratamento tem 9,9 (p=<0,01) vezes mais chance de evoluir para Ãbito e o indivÃduo que nÃo iniciou o antiretrovirais tem 10,1 (p=<0,01) vezes mais. Estes resultados sÃo importantes para o planejamento e desenvolvimento de aÃÃes voltadas para o controle da TB nos pacientes com infecÃÃo por HIV/Aids em Fortaleza. / One of the most critical problems related to HIV / tuberculosis (TB) coinfection is the associate mortality. HIV infection has contributed to the increase in the number of TB cases and has even been responsible for the increased mortality among coinfected patients. Fortaleza, located in Northeastern Brazil, is one of the urban centers with the highest incidence of TB in the country. This research evaluates clinical, epidemiological characteristics and risk factors related to mortality from TB in patients coinfected with HIV / AIDS, aged 12, residents in the city of Fortaleza. It was performed a retrospective, descriptive and case-control study. Database were reviewed in 262 charts of patients with TB active treated at four clinics reference to HIV / AIDS in Fortaleza between the years 2004-2008. The profile of these patients is characterized by young adults, low education, and common habits of alcoholism (41.98%), smoking (33.59%) and illicit drug use (26.72%). The majority (65.65%) showed the first time TB. In the clinical presentation, pulmonary TB was observed in 50% of cases. The majority (62.98%) underwent hospitalization during treatment of TB. The use of anti retrovirias was more frequent in patients who progressed to cure or end of treatment (88.0%). The mortality rate was 11.45% and the coefficient of abandonment of 16.03%. In univariate analysis, the individual separated / widowed have 3.7 times greater risk of death from TB, and 100% of new cases died. X-ray examination showed a changed ratio of 31% of deaths. The diagnosis of HIV due to TB was a protective factor against death (OR = 0.25). Mean viral load before TB was higher in the case group (p = 0.04). The start of ART was another protective factor for death (OR = 0.11). In the final model of logistic regression, we found that the individual who had no response to treatment is 9.9 (p = <0.01) times more likely to lead to death and the individual who has not started antiretroviral 10.1 (p = <0.01) more times. These results are important for planning and development of actions for the control of TB in patients with HIV infection / AIDS in Fortaleza.

Submitted by Haroudo Xavier Filho (haroudo.xavierfo@ufpe.br) on 2016-03-22T18:32:27Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação Neyla Alves_Versão digital.pdf: 1629049 bytes, checksum: aa72b7e3881142a178e5534aa4064d95 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-22T18:32:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação Neyla Alves_Versão digital.pdf: 1629049 bytes, checksum: aa72b7e3881142a178e5534aa4064d95 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-02 / CAPES / CNPq / HIV/aids (Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/aids) é considerado uma pandemia, envolvendo mais de 70 milhões de infecções e 35 milhões de mortes desde o primeiro relato na década de 80. O HIV tipo 1 (HIV-1) infecta principalmente linfócitos T CD4+ e linhagens de macrófagos, tendo sua patogenicidade definida pela depleção de LT CD4+. Além disso, a condição de infecção por HIV-1 é bastante complexa e dependente de diversos fatores relacionados à variabilidade dos indivíduos no que diz respeito à suscetibilidade à infecção e à progressão para a aids, sendo observada a ativação imunológica generalizada. Envolvida na modulação das respostas imunes inata e adaptativa encontra-se a vitamina D, que desempenha papel no metabolismo mineral e apresenta efeito pleiotrópico no crescimento e diferenciação celulares. Seus efeitos imunológicos são dados a partir da ligação com o receptor de vitamina D (VDR) de diversas células, regulando a liberação de citocinas, a função e proliferação de linfócitos T e a produção de peptídeos antimicrobianos como a catelicidina. O VDR atua modulando a ação dessa vitamina induzindo a resposta imune local e variações genéticas presentes no gene codificador do VDR podem levar à diminuição de sua atividade e, consequentemente, ao prejuízo para o papel da vitamina D. Nos indivíduos infectados pelo HIV, os níveis de deficiência dessa vitamina são altos e fatores como raça, insuficiência renal, pouca exposição à luz ultravioleta e exposição as drogas anti-HIV, como o Efavirenz, estão associados a essa deficiência, respectivamente, sendo determinantes para a susceptibilidade à infecção pelo HIV e a predição da progressão da doença. Sendo assim, neste trabalho foram estudados seis polimorfismos de base única (SNPs) (rs3890733, rs476048, rs1540339, rs2248098, rs2228570 e rs11568820) presentes no gene do receptor de vitamina D (VDR) e sua influência na resposta dos pacientes à Terapia Antirretroviral (TARV). Foram recrutados 107 pacientes acompanhados e tratados no Hospital Dia do Instituto de Medicina Integral Professor Fernando Figueira (IMIP), subdivididos em quatro grupos: I- Sucesso Terapêutico, II- Falha Terapêutica, III- Sucesso Imunológico, IV- Falha Imunológica, e analisadas variáveis clínicas e epidemiológicas, como gênero, idade, peso e etnia. Não foram observadas associações estatísticas nas análises isoladas entre os polimorfismos dos genes do VDR com a falha virológica ou a resposta imunológica. Porém, nas análises multivariadas, o genótipo C/C do rs1540339 mostrou-se associado com o gênero no sucesso virológico (OR=0,08, p=0,04). Em adição, a análise envolvendo peso, etnia e gênero e o rs3890733 mostrou associação com a resposta imunológica para os genótipos C/C e T/T no modelo sobredominante (OR=0,21, p=0,024). Os resultados indicam a importância do receptor de vitamina D em infecções por HIV-1 e poderão contribuir para o entendimento da variabilidade das respostas dos pacientes à TARV. / HIV/aids (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/aids) is considered a pandemic, involving more than 70 million infections and 35 million deaths since the first report in the 80’s. HIV type 1 (HIV-1) infects mainly T lymphocytes CD4 + and macrophage lineages, and their pathogenicity is defined by the depletion of CD4 +. Furthermore, the condition of HIV- 1 infection is very complex and dependent on many factors related to the individual variability, regarding the susceptibility to infection and progression to AIDS, generalized immune activation being observed. Involved in the modulation of innate and adaptive immune responses is vitamin D, which plays a role in mineral metabolism and has pleiotropic effects on cell growth and differentiation. Their immune effects are data from binding to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) in various cells, regulating the release of cytokines, the function and proliferation of T lymphocytes and the production of antimicrobial peptides as cathelicidin. The VDR acts modulating the action of vitamin D by inducing local immune responses and genetic variations present in the VDR encoding gene can lead to reduction of its activity and consequently, disfunction in the role of vitamin D. In HIV-infected individuals, this vitamin deficiency levels are high and factors such as race, kidney failure, lower exposure to ultraviolet light and exposure to anti- HIV drugs, such as Efavirenz, are associated with this deficiency, being determinants on the susceptibility to HIV infection as well as prediction of disease progression. Therefore, in this work we studied six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs3890733, rs476048, rs1540339, rs2248098, rs2228570 and rs11568820) present in the D vitamin receptor gene (VDR) and its influence on patients’ response to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). We recruited 107 patients followed from the Hospital Day Integrative Medicine Institute Professor Fernando Figueira (IMIP), subdivided into four groups: I. Therapeutic Success, II. Therapeutic Failure, III. Immune Success, IV. Immune Failure, and analyzed clinical and epidemiological variables, such as gender, age, weight and ethnicity. No statistically significant associations were observed in the isolated analyzes between polymorphisms of the VDR gene with therapeutic failure or immune response. However, in multivariate analyzes, the rs1540339 C/C genotype was associated with gender in therapeutic success (OR = 0.08, p = 0.04). In addition, analysis involving weight, ethnicity and gender and the rs3890733 showed association with the immune response to the C/C genotype and T/T in overdominant model (OR = 0.21, p = 0.024). The results indicate the importance of vitamin D receptor in HIV- 1 infections and may contribute to the understanding of variability of patient’s various responses to ART.

Os pacientes infectados pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) freqüentemente apresentam alterações digestivas, sendo o esôfago um alvo comum de lesões estruturais. A etiologia infecciosa é a mais freqüente neste grupo de pacientes. Múltiplos agentes já foram implicados como causadores de lesões esofágicas. As infecções virais são uma das principais causas de tais lesões, sendo os vírus mais implicados o citomegalovirus (CMV) e o vírus herpes simples (HSV). Muitas lesões ulceradas permanecem sem diagnóstico etiológico, mesmo após exaustiva investigação, sendo denominadas úlceras idiopáticas ou aftosas. Os métodos de diagnóstico usuais são demorados e pouco sensíveis. Assim, nosso estudo tem como principal objetivo estudar o papel do método da reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) no diagnóstico destas lesões. Durante o período de outubro de 1996 a outubro de 1997, foram estudados 79 pacientes HIV-positivos, que foram submetidos ao exame de endoscopia digestiva alta por indicação clínica. Estes foram submetidos a 89 exames endoscópicos, sendo colhidas 96 biópsias, as quais foram armazenadas em nitrogênio líquido (50) ou em freezer a –70oC (46). O DNA foi extraído usando método baseado na lise hipotônica, digestão com proteinase K, extração com fenol-clorofórmio e precipitação em etanol. Uma quantidade fixa foi usada para amplificação em ciclador térmico, utilizando primers específicos para CMV, Herpesvirus, HPV, HIV, Haemophilus ducreyi, Treponema pallidum e as micobactérias M. tuberculosis, M. avium e M. intracellulare. O produto final foi submetido a uma eletroforese em gel de agarose e corado com brometo de etídeo. A endoscopia não revelou alterações esofágicas em 26 exames (29,2%). As alterações observadas foram monilíase esofágica em 33 exames (37,1%), úlceras em 22 (24,7%); esofagite em 10 (11,2%) e áreas lugol-negativas em 9 (10,1%). A PCR resultou positiva para o CMV em 19 amostras (19,8%), para o Herpes em 4 (4,2%), para o HPV em 17 (17,7%), para o HIV em 37 (38,5%) e para o H. ducreyi em 3 (3,1%). Nenhuma amostra foi positiva para o T. pallidum e para micobactérias. No estudo de 29 amostras de 22 úlceras esofágicas a PCR detectou o CMV em 9 amostras (31%), o Herpes em 3 (10,3%), o HPV em 6 (20,7%), o HIV em 19 (65,5%) e o H. ducreyi em 2 (6,9%) e em 8 (36,4%) não foi detectado nenhum agente. O CMV foi detectado com freqüência nas úlceras esofágicas, sendo difícil diferenciar se havia infecção ativa ou latente. O HIV teve uma incidência elevada nas biópsias de úlceras, o que pode sugerir um possível papel etiológico deste agente em tais lesões. O HPV foi o terceiro agente mais freqüente, mas não foi possível caracterizá-lo como causador de lesões esofágica ulceradas. A PCR apresentou potencial para tornar-se um método útil na investigação das lesões esofágicas em pacientes infectados pelo HIV. / Patients infected by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) usually present digestive abnormalities and the esophagus is a common target of structural lesions. Infections are the most frequent cause of esophageal lesions in these patients. Several agents were already implied in this process. Viral infections are one of the main causes of such lesions and cytomegalovirus (CMV) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) were the most involved agents. Many ulcerated lesions persist without etiologic diagnosis even after exhaustive investigation, being denominated idiopathic or aphthous ulcers. The usual diagnostic methods are difficult and have low sensitivity. Thus, the main objective of our study was to evaluate the role of the polimerase chain reaction (PCR) method in the diagnosis of these lesions. During the period of October of 1996 to October of 1997, 79 HIV-positive patients were studied. They were submitted to upper digestive endoscopies, which were indicated on clinical basis. These patients were submitted to 89 upper digestive endoscopies, being obtained 96 biopsies, which were stored in liquid nitrogen or in a 70oC freezer. DNA was extracted using a method based on hypotonic lyses, proteinase K digestion, extraction with phenol-chloroform and precipitation in ethanol. A fixed amount was used for amplification in thermal cycler, using specific primers for CMV, herpesvirus, human papillomavirus (HPV), HIV, Haemophilus ducreyi, Treponema pallidum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. The final products were submitted to an electrophoresis in agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide. The endoscopies did not reveal esophageal alterations in 26 exams(29,2%). The abnormalities observed were esophageal candidiasis in 33 exams (37,1%), ulcers in 22 (24,7%); esophagitis in 10 (11,2%) and lugol-negative areas in 9 (10,1%). The PCR was positive to CMV in 19 samples (19,8%), for Herpes in 4 (4,2%), for HPV in 17 (17,7%), for HIV in 37 (38,5%) and for the H. ducreyi in 3 (3,1%). No sample was positive for T. pallidum or micobacterium. In the study of the esophageal ulcers by PCR, CMV was detected in 9 samples (31%), Herpes in 3 (10,3%), HPV in 6 (20,7%), HIV in 19 (65,5%), H. ducreyi in 2 (6,9%) and any agent was detected in 8 samples (36,4%). CMV was frequently detected in esophageal ulcers, being difficult to differentiate between active and latent infections. The HIV had an elevated incidence in ulcer biopsies, which may suggest a possible etiologic role of this virus in such lesions. HPV was the third more frequent agent, but it was not possible to attribute the esophageal lesions to that virus. In conclusion, this study suggests that the PCR can be an useful method in the investigation of esophageal lesions in HIV infected patients.

nÃo hà / A infecÃÃo pelo HIV/aids em crianÃas vem sendo eliminada como problema de saÃde pÃblica em paÃses desenvolvidos, mas mantÃm elevada carga de morbimortalidade naqueles em desenvolvimento. O Brasil se destaca pela polÃtica consistente de controle, especialmente pela adoÃÃo universal/gratuita da HAART em 1996. Esta tese visa caracterizar padrÃes e tendÃncias de morbimortalidade e sobrevida em crianÃas com aids no paÃs. Foram estruturados dois blocos analÃticos: 1) estudos nacionais de morbimortalidade por aids em crianÃas, 2) estudos nacionais de sobrevida em crianÃas com aids. No primeiro bloco realizou-se estudo ecolÃgico do tipo sÃrie temporal (1984-2008) de casos (14.314) e Ãbitos (5.041) por aids no Brasil, regiÃes e grupos etÃrios (0-12 e 0-4 anos), baseado na anÃlise dos respectivos coeficientes por modelos de regressÃo polinomial, diferenÃa percentual e razÃes nas eras prÃ-HAART e HAART. Adicionalmente, realizou-se anÃlise de tendÃncia temporal (1999-2007) da mortalidade por causas mÃltiplas relacionadas à infecÃÃo pelo HIV/aids em crianÃas infectadas no Brasil (2.191/680.736) pela estimativa da razÃo de chances de mortalidade (MOR). No segundo bloco, realizou-se estudo de coorte retrospectiva, multicÃntrico-nacional, de sobrevida em crianÃas com aids (920 crianÃas, 1999-2002, atà 2007) e fatores associados, com anÃlise integrada ao primeiro estudo nacional (914 crianÃas, 1983-1998, atà 2002) para verificaÃÃo de tendÃncias de sobrevida e padrÃes de ocorrÃncia de diagnÃstico tardio e doenÃas definidoras de aids. Os resultados demonstram que o Brasil apresenta reduÃÃo da tendÃncia temporal da morbimortalidade da aids apÃs a adoÃÃo da HAART, mas com grandes desigualdades regionais. As regiÃes mais pobres do paÃs (Norte/Nordeste) apresentaram o pior cenÃrio para mortalidade (p<0,001), apesar da concentraÃÃo de casos e Ãbitos nas regiÃes mais desenvolvidas (Sul/Sudeste). Para a incidÃncia, o Nordeste evoluiu com estabilizaÃÃo (p<0,001); o Sul apresenta tendÃncia crescente para crianÃas 0-4 anos (p<0,001) e os maiores coeficientes do paÃs em ambos grupos etÃrios. O coeficiente de mortalidade por causas nÃo relacionadas ao HIV/aids entre 1999-2007 era estÃvel (0,08/100.000 habitantes). A MOR indica tendÃncia de crescimento destas causas entre 2000-2007 (1,18 versus 1,85), embora nÃo significativa (p=0,413); nÃo foi verificada tendÃncia de causas especÃficas neste grupo. A probabilidade de sobrevida em 60 meses foi de 0,88 (IC 95%: 0,86-0,91), com menor sobrevida para crianÃas com <1 ano (p=0,013), categoria C (p<0,001), doenÃas oportunistas (p<0,001) e sem TARV (p<0,001). Nos estudos nacionais, houve, respectivamente, 420 (46%) e 109 (11,8%) Ãbitos, com tendÃncia de ampliaÃÃo da sobrevida (p<0,001), variando de 0,20 (<1988) a 0,90 (2001-2002), e tambÃm pÃs-HAART (0,41 versus 0,84, p<0,001). Houve reduÃÃo do diagnÃstico tardio e de doenÃas definidoras em crianÃas nascidas (p=0,009 e p<0,001) e diagnosticadas pÃs-HAART (p=0,004 e p<0,001), com proporÃÃes ainda elevadas na segunda coorte (47,7% versus 36,1% e 80,7% versus 50,8%); doenÃas bacterianas e pneumocistose mantiveram importÃncia, com menor grau. Conclui-se que a morbimortalidade da aids em crianÃas no paÃs vem sendo reduzida, sobretudo pÃs-HAART. A sobrevida ampliou-se significativamente, tornando a aids uma condiÃÃo crÃnica, com desafios inerentes. Mas desigualdades regionais indicam implementaÃÃo diferenciada das aÃÃes, com pior cenÃrio nas regiÃes mais pobres, com aspectos ainda da era prÃ-HAART. Adicionalmente, o estudo revela questÃes importantes relacionadas à cobertura/qualidade da atenÃÃo à saÃde da mulher (em especial prÃ-natal e planejamento familiar) e Ãs crianÃas expostas/infectadas pelo HIV bem como à complexidade da dinÃmica de transmissÃo do HIV-1 no paÃs. / HIV/AIDS infection among children is in the process of being eliminated as a public health problem in high-income countries, but still maintains an elevated level of morbidity-mortality in developing nations. Brazil stands out for its consistent HIV/AIDS control policy, particularly its adoption of free and universal distribution of HAART in 1996. This thesis describes the patterns and trends of morbidity-mortality and survival in children with AIDS in Brazil. Two analytical groupings were formed: 1) national studies of AIDS morbidity-mortality in children, 2) national survival studies in children with AIDS. In the first group, an ecological time-series study was undertaken (1984-2008) on cases (14,314) and deaths (5,041) from AIDS in Brazil by region and age group (0-12 and 0-4 years), based on an analysis of the respective rates using polynomial regression, percentage differences and ratios in the pre-HAART and HAART eras. In addition, a temporal trend analysis was done (1999-2007) on mortality from the various causes related to HIV/AIDS infection in children in Brazil (2,191/680,736) using Mortality Odds Ratio (MOR). Among the second group, a multi-centric, national retrospective cohort study of survival of children with AIDS (920 children, 1999-2002, until 2007) and associated factors was conducted with integrated analysis of the first national study (914 children, 1983-1998, until 2002) for verification of survival trends and occurrence patterns of late diagnosis and AIDS-defining diseases. The results point to the fact that Brazil shows a reduction of AIDS morbidity and mortality after the implementation of HAART, but with large regional disparities. The poorest regions of the country (North/Northeast) showed the worst trend for mortality (p<0.001), despite the concentration of cases and deaths in the most developed regions (South/Southeast). In terms of incidence, evolution in the Northeast stabilized (p<0.001), whereas the South showed increasing trends for children aged 0-4 (p<0.001), with the highest national rates for both age groups. The mortality rate from causes not related to HIV/AIDS between 1999 and 2007 was stable (0.08/100,000 population). The MOR indicates an increasing trend of these causes from 2000-2007 (1.18 versus 1.85), although not statistically significant (p=0.413). A trend of specific causes was not identified in this group. The probability of survival at 60 months was 0.88 (CI 95%: 0.86-0.91), with the lowest survival rates among children <1 year of age (p=0.013), category C (p<0.001), opportunistic diseases (p<0.001) and without ART (p<0.001). In the national studies there were, respectively, 420 (46%) and 109 (11.8%) deaths, with a trend for increased survival (p<0.001), varying from 0.20 (<1988) to 0.90 (2001-2002) post-HAART (0.41 versus 0.84, p<0.001). There was a reduction in late diagnosis and AIDS-defining diseases in children born (p=0.009 and p<0.001) and diagnosed post-HAART (p=0.004 and p<0.001), though with elevated frequencies still seen in the second cohort (47.7% versus 36.1% and 80.7% versus 50.8%). Bacterial diseases and pneumocystosis remained important, but to a lesser degree. It is concluded that morbidity-mortality due to AIDS among Brazilian children has been declining, principally after the adoption of HAART. Survival increased significantly to the point of making AIDS a chronic condition with inherent challenges. However, there were regional inequalities with differences in the implementation of control activities, and worse conditions in the poorest regions, still showing characteristics of the pre-HAART era. In addition, the study reveals important issues related to coverage/quality of health care for women (particularly pre-natal care and family planning) and for children exposed to or infected with HIV, as well as to the dynamics of HIV-1 transmission in Brazil.

No description available.

No description available.

Magister Artium - MA / Twenty years into democracy and South Africa like many of the world‟s nations still faces manifold challenges in dealing with HIV/AIDS. This disease affects millions of people in various forms; socially, economically and politically. HIV/AIDS is considered to be a global pandemic (UNAIDS, 2011). The largest group at risk appears to be people between the ages of 15 and 24. One crucial way of dealing with this pandemic is through education since the emphasis is on prevention. It is against this background that this study explored the challenges teachers face in implementing HIV and AIDS initiatives and programmes in two primary schools in Crossroads, in the Nyanga region, in the Western Cape. It appears that research on this topic is not normally carried out in primary schools. I therefore start from the premise that literature on the topic, especially in this empirical field (primary schools), is limited. The conceptual lens used to understand this complex issue is the Bio-ecological Systems Model of Bronfrenbrenner (1977). Teachers operate within various contexts and their teaching is often influences by their experiences, knowledge and attitudes (Tayob, 2010:3). Furthermore, it appears that the implementation of HIV/AIDS initiatives and programmes at primary school level is dependent on the relationship between many systems. The complexities of understanding these relationships warrant the use of this model within this study. Methodologically, this study employed a qualitative case study research design to investigate this contemporary phenomenon. I employed in-depth qualitative data collection procedures which included: a questionnaire, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. The findings indicate that educators are seriously constrained by lack of support from school management and parents when engaging in HIV/AIDS initiatives or programmes at respective primary schools. The study also reveals that educators are not well trained to offer counselling to deal with HIV/AIDS related matters and it becomes worse with those infected. In addition, this study reveals that embedded cultural beliefs play a huge impeding factor in attempts to participate in HIV/AIDS initiatives and programmes, which are aimed to empower both educators and learners. The study therefore recommends a need for stronger financial muscle and support from schools management team to ensure that time set aside for life orientation classes be utilised effectively for the benefit of learners with priority on HIV/AIDS studies and initiative programmes. A strategic inclusion of parents, religious and traditional leaders with the Department of Basic Education and all relevant partners is very critical to achieve the fight against the struggle with HIV/AIDS through means of education at all levels within the sector and beyond.