The study begins with the development of the nature and character of fifteenth century Italian humanism. It then proceeds to delineate the humanist methodological approach to three key areas; rhetoric, grammar, and historical criticism. Having thus laid this necessary foundation, the work examines selected portions of the debates of the council with regard to each of the three key areas, in order to ascertain whether or not a humanistic approach was utilized by the Latin participants in their argumentations. This investigation concludes that the Latin advocates of the council did indeed employ humanist methodology in both the preparation and presentation of their arguments in the debates. Therefore, such evidence strongly suggests that an appreciation and acceptance of the humanist approach to rhetoric, grammar, and textual criticism existed in the church in the early decades of the fifteenth century.

Abailard expanded Anselm's sola ratione methodology, and in so doing he anticipated Renaissance humanism. His theory of abstraction justified the use of dialectic in theology, and was the basis for his entire theological system. He distinguished faith from mere belief by the application of dialectic, and created a theology which focused on the individual. The Renaissance humanists emphasized individual moral edification, which was evident in their interest in rhetoric. Abailard anticipated these rhetorical concerns, focusing on the individual's moral life rather than on metaphysical arguments. His logical treatises developed a theory of language as a mediator between reality and the conceptual order, and this argument was further developed in Sic et non. Sic et non was more than a collection of contradictions; it was a comprehensive theory of language as an inexact picture of reality, which forced the individual to reach his own understanding of scripture. Abailard's development of the power of reason anticipated developments in the Renaissance.

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Detta examensarbete har undersökt hur medier och medierade budskap kan påverka individens konstruktion av de egna värdena, och hur detta kunde ställas i förhål-lande till skolans värdegrund. Detta gjordes utifrån tidigare fallstudier och forskning vilken behandlade områdena tv samt spel- och fiktionsfilm. De frågeställningar som söktes svar på i undersökningen syftade till att hitta förhållandet mellan medierade budskap, hur dessa påverkar individen, och hur detta kunde stå i förhållande till de värden som skrivs fram i skolans värdegrund. Frågeställningarna hade följande lydelse: På vilket sätt kan medierade budskap förstärka den demokratiska humanistiska värdegrunden så som den formuleras i skolans styrdokument? Andra frågan löd: På vilket sätt kan medierade budskap undergräva den demokratiska humanistiska värdegrunden så som den formuleras i skolans styrdokument? Den forskning som användes gav två skilda perspektiv på medierade budskap. Det ena perspektivet behandlade tv och film, och framhävde där positiva och värdestärkande effekter vilka kom att harmoniera med svenska skolans värdegrund. Det andra perspektivet behandlade medierat våld i tv och film, och den påverkan detta kunde ha på individens konstruktion av de egna värdena, samt påvisade de negativa effekter som kunde följa på medierat våld. De resultat som framkom i denna undersökning hävdade att både negativa (undergrävande) effekter, och positiva (förstärkande) effekter på individens värdekonstruktion gick att hitta i det undersökta materialet, då dessa effekter ställdes i förhållande till de värden som skrivs fram i skolans värdegrund.

An important masterpiece by the Paduan sculptor Andrea Riccio, the Della Torre tomb monument broke with contemporary funerary monuments in both its form and content. Understanding what enabled this break with tradition is the central issue in the study of this monument—one that has not been sufficiently addressed in previous scholarship. Despite the lack of overt references to the Christian faith on the Della Torre monument, the narrative programme is concerned with two very important Christian concerns—the necessity of a life of virtue and the health and afterlife of the soul. I argue that the narrative on the tomb, influenced by contemporary funerary oratory and poetry, presents a model of virtue for the viewer. Moreover, I argue that Riccio has illustrated the presence of this exemplar by the very structure of the monument itself. This dissertation focuses on the artistic and intellectual community surrounding the creation of this monument and, in particular, on the reconciliation of this strictly all’antica monument with Christian thought in this period. Upon a thorough contextual examination, this unprecedented monument becomes less of an anomaly. It reflects the ideas of an important circle of humanists from both Padua and Verona, thus illustrating the breadth of their interests and their involvement in contemporary debates over religion, the nature and potential immortality of the soul, and the necessity of virtue. Analysing this monument within the context of humanist ideas prevalent among the individuals within the Della Torre circle, those who had, or likely had, a great influence on the significance of the monument’s narrative, gives this monument what has been long denied to it—a proper understanding of its Christian programme and didactic function. The fulfillment of this task, which promises to shed additional light on the adaptation of pagan elements to Christian purposes, is the overall aim of this work.

The diploma thesis deals with the Auschwitz theme in philosophy and ethics. The first part of the thesis aims to describe the development of the humanistic tradition in Europe as well as individual types of humanism, their basis and their difficulties. The main focus of the diploma thesis is on the philosophy of Emmanuel Lévinas and Jean-François Lyotard. Furthermore, the hypothesis, according to which traditional humanism resulted in the events of Holocaust, is derived from their thoughts. The aim of the study is to prove or disprove this hypothesis. In addition to the analysis of both Lévinas and Lyotard's theories, it also addresses the studies of other philosophers whose philosophical thinking is related to the issue of Holocaust. Their thoughts and concepts are compared and confronted with the theories of the main critics of the concept of humanism, Lévinas and Lyotard. Key words: Auschwitz, Holocaust, Nazism, Humanism, Lévinas, Lyotard

O presente trabalho tem por escopo procurar compreender o papel desempenhado pelo direito no capitalismo, a partir do arcabouço teórico fornecido pelo estudo do debate sobre o humanismo entre os filósofos marxistas franceses Garaudy e Althusser. De início, trouxemos, em breves linhas, uma análise do embate entre Sartre e Heidegger acerca do humanismo. Enquanto em Sartre encontramos a identificação entre humanismo e existencialismo e uma valorização da subjetividade; em Heidegger, temos a postulação de uma superação da dicotomia sujeito-objeto e uma crítica expressa ao próprio uso do vocábulo humanismo. Já na esfera do marxismo, traçamos um sucinto panorama da polêmica sobre o humanismo no Partido Comunista Francês. Então, passamos a tratar da controvérsia entre Garaudy e Althusser. Para Garaudy, o marxismo é um humanismo novo e peculiar, afastado de qualquer caráter metafísico, definido como metodologia da iniciativa histórica para realização do homem total, sendo que essa realização plena apenas terá ensejo no comunismo. Ainda na leitura garaudyana, a alienação se mostra no despojamento da dimensão propriamente humana do homem. A raiz de todas as formas de alienação encontra-se no trabalho, tal como ele se apresenta no capitalismo. O socialismo, para ele, representa não apenas uma expansão das forças produtivas e uma mudança nas relações de produção, mas, além disso, representa uma transformação profunda na consciência dos homens. Para Althusser, por sua vez, o marxismo é um anti-humanismo teórico, pois, os conceitos de base do marxismo não tem qualquer relação com noções humanistas. O filósofo propugna a existência de um corte epistemológico no percurso intelectual de Marx, por meio do qual, o pensador alemão deixou para trás os conceitos ideológicos que caracterizam o humanismo, tais como, homem, sujeito, essência humana e alienação, e fundou uma nova ciência. A visão de Garaudy e Althusser sobre a produção teórica de Marx é totalmente oposta. Garaudy aponta os Manuscritos de 1844 como o ato de fundação do marxismo, enquanto para Althusser, o texto ainda se encontra preso à ideologia humanista, pré-científica. A questão da subjetividade é um ponto de divergência profunda entre os filósofos franceses. Para Garaudy, o marxismo é o único caminho teórico e prático capaz de colocar o homem na condição de sujeito da história. Por sua vez, Althusser entende que o conceito de sujeito é ideológico. O pensamento althusseriano aponta o caráter basilar da ideologia jurídica, no capitalismo. O sujeito, por excelência, é o sujeito de direito. Para ele, a história, cujo motor é a luta de classes, apresenta-se como um processo sem sujeito. Numa perpectiva de matriz althusseriana, Garaudy, ao não se desapegar de uma leitura humanista do marxismo, negando o corte epistemológico, permanece na chave teórica da ideologia jurídica. Ao longo de nossa dissertação, apresentamos os desenvolvimentos teóricos que nos permitiram chegar a esse entendimento. Salientamos que o estudo da forma jurídica teve como lastro a formulação teórica empreendida por Pachukanis. / This work has the scope of seeking to understand the role played by the law in capitalism, from the theoretical framework provided by the study on humanism debate between the French Marxists philosophers Garaudy and Althusser. Initially, we introduced a brief analysis of the clash between Sartre and Heidegger about humanism, in an existential perspective. While in Sartre we found the identification of humanism and existentialism and an appreciation of subjectivity, in Heidegger we have a postulation of overcoming of the subject-object dichotomy and a criticism expressed as to the very use of the word humanism. In the sphere of Marxism, we draw a brief overview of the controversy over humanism in the French Communist Party. So we come to deal with the dispute between Garaudy and Althusser. For Garaudy, Marxism is a new and unique humanism with no metaphysical character, defined as \"methodology of historical initiative for realization of the total man\", and this realization will only come to the fore in communism. Furthermore, in the Garaudyan reading, alienation is demonstrated in the dispossession of the truly human dimension of man. The root of all forms of alienation is at work, as it appears in capitalism. Socialism, for him, is not only an expansion of the productive forces and a change in production relations, but also, \"a profound transformation in the consciousness of men.\" For Althusser, in turn, Marxism is a theoretical anti-humanism because basic Marxist concepts are unrelated to humanistic notions. The philosopher advocates the existence of an epistemological break in the intellectual journey of Marx, through which the German thinker left behind the ideological concepts that characterize humanism, such as man, subject, human essence and alienation, and founded a new science. The vision of Garaudy and Althusser on the theoretical works of Marx is the total opposite. Garaudy points to the Manuscripts of 1844 as \"Marxisms founding act\", while for Althusser, the text is still attached to the humanist ideology and therefore pre-scientific. The question of subjectivity is a deep point of divergence between the French philosophers. For Garaudy, Marxism is the only theoretical and practical path capable of placing man in the condition of the subject of history. In turn, Althusser believes that the concept of the subject is ideological. Althusserian thought emphasizes the fundamental nature of legal ideology in capitalism. The subject, par excellence, is the subject of law. For him, history the driving force of which is the class struggle is presented as a process without a subject. In a perspective of the Althusserian matrix, Garaudy, by not letting go of a humanist reading of Marxism, rejecting the epistemological break, remains within the theoretical ideological framework of the law. Throughout our dissertation, we present the theoretical developments that have enabled us to reach this understanding. We emphasize that the study of the legal form had as theoretical ballast the formulation undertaken by Pachukanis.

Se Petrarca, como inaugurador do humanismo no século XIV já se opusera à teologia escolástica, levada ao impasse entre fé e razão com os argumentos averroistas e depois ockhamistas e entregue às disputas dialéticas; propugnara pela recuperação da erudição clássica sustentando como cristão que nenhum guia deve ser desprezado se mostra o caminho da salvação e indicara que ninguém, a não ser o cristão, sabe a quem e de que maneira confessar - cui et qualiter confitendum sit - será Erasmo de Rotterdam no século XVI que, afastando-se das sutilezas daqueles que desde o Medievo queriam compreender os mistérios da fé fazendo a teologia se apoiar na filosofia enquanto reflexão sobre o Ser conforme o cânone platônico-aristotélico, proporá que a ciência das coisas divinas e humanas deve ser buscada antes na filosofia enquanto tradição retórica de reflexão sobre os problemas do Homem e, explorando ao máximo as possibilidades da nascente imprensa, explicará socraticamente, através de seus milhares de Adagia, Colloquia, Litterae, traduções e edições princeps, para uma Europa estupefata, angustiada e vacilante entre o renascimento da grandeza antiga e o radicalismo religioso de católicos e reformados, porque e como, decisivamente, devem ser lidos os autores greco-latinos e entendida a precedência da Revelação cristã em relação ao paganismo e às invenções - inventiones - dos outros povos. Neste quadro de rupturas, se insere com relevo os Antibárbaros, designado pelo seu autor para a edição de sua Opera Omnia como o primeiro livro da primeira ordem que é justamente aquela voltada ao ensino dos textos antigos - ad institutionem litterarum - livro que traz a suma de seus argumentos pela pacífica unidade da verdade. / If Petrarch, as inaugurator of Humanism in the XIV Century, was already contrary to the Scholastic Theology - pushed into the impasse between Faith and Reason with Averroists arguments and then Ockamists, and involved in dialectical debates - battled for the restoration of the Classical erudition standing as a Christian that none guide should be contempt if it points out the salvation path; and indicated that no one but the Christian knows to whom and in which manner to confess - cui et qualiter confitendum sit - it will be Erasmus from Rotterdam in XVI Century that, being far from the subtleness from those whose, from the Middle Ages, wanted to understand the Faith Mysteries making the Theology be supported by the Philosophy as reflection about the Being according to the Platonic-Aristotelian Canon, will propose that the science of holly and human things should be chased prior in the Philosophy as Rhetorical tradition of reflection about human problems and, exploring uttermost the possibilities of the emerging press, will explain in a Socratic manner, throughout his thousands of Adagia, Colloquia, Litterae, translations and princeps editions, for a perplex, anxious and oscillating Europe between the renaissance of the ancient greatness and the religious radicalism of Catholics and Protestants, why and how, definitely, should be read the Greek-Latin authors and grasped the precedence of Christian Revelation regarding the Paganism and the inventions -inventiones- of other peoples. In this landscape of ruptures, it inserts with weight the Antibarbarians, designated by its author for his Opera Omnia edition, as the first book of the prime order that is exactly that one made for the instruction of classical texts -ad institutionem litterarum- a book that summarizes his arguments for the peaceful unity of Truth.