<p>The development of digital detectors for X-ray imaging in medical diagnostics receives an increasing amount of attention. The detector under development at the Department of Radiation Sciences at Uppsala University is a hybrid pixel detector, which consists of a semiconductor sensor mounted onto a readout chip. The readout chip is capable of performing photon counting and has an externally adjustable threshold.</p><p>A simulation tool for the detector and a model applying the linear-systems transfer theory to X-ray hybrid pixel detectors have been developed. Also a characterization of the readout chip has been done. In order to estimate the potential of the detector for diagnostic radiology, we investigate the image quality using the spatial frequency dependent detective quantum efficiency (DQE). By means of the detector simulations, the influence of threshold setting, noise sources, level of exposure and charge sharing on the DQE have been studied. By means of the linear-systems theory, a single analytical expression is provided to obtain the DQE of a hybrid pixel detector.</p><p>The method developed in this thesis will make it possible to optimize a detector design according to a particular medical application. It will also permit modifications and new features to be included without having to construct a full detector system.</p>

<p>Medical X-ray imaging is an important tool in diagnostic radiology. The ionising-radiation dose to the patient is justified by the clinical benefit of the examination. Nonetheless, detectors that operate at even lower doses and provide more information to the radiologist are desired. A hybrid pixel detector has the potential to provide a leap in detector technology as it incorporates a more advanced signal-processing capability than currently used detectors.</p><p>The DIXI digital detector is a hybrid pixel detector developed for X-ray imaging. It consists of a readout chip and a semiconductor sensor. The division in two parts makes it possible to optimise each part individually. The detector is divided into square pixels with a size of 270 x 270 μm2. DIXI has the ability to count single photons and every readout pixel has two embedded counters to allow the acquisition of two images close in time. A discriminator enables the selection of photons with energies above a preset threshold level.</p><p>The readout chip Angie has been developed and its performance has been evaluated in terms of noise, threshold variation and capability to perform energy weighted counting. Silicon sensors have been fabricated, and a control system for DIXI has been designed and built. An electroless process for deposition of Ni/Au bumps on the chip and sensor has been optimised as a preparation for the assembly of a complete detector, which is being assembled by flip-chip bonding using anisotropic conductive film.</p><p>A simulation library for the DIXI detector has been set up and results on the image quality are reported for different exposures and working conditions. A theoretical model for hybrid pixel detectors based on the cascaded linear system theory has been developed. The model can be used to investigate and optimise the detector for different detector configurations and operating conditions.</p>

The development of digital detectors for X-ray imaging in medical diagnostics receives an increasing amount of attention. The detector under development at the Department of Radiation Sciences at Uppsala University is a hybrid pixel detector, which consists of a semiconductor sensor mounted onto a readout chip. The readout chip is capable of performing photon counting and has an externally adjustable threshold. A simulation tool for the detector and a model applying the linear-systems transfer theory to X-ray hybrid pixel detectors have been developed. Also a characterization of the readout chip has been done. In order to estimate the potential of the detector for diagnostic radiology, we investigate the image quality using the spatial frequency dependent detective quantum efficiency (DQE). By means of the detector simulations, the influence of threshold setting, noise sources, level of exposure and charge sharing on the DQE have been studied. By means of the linear-systems theory, a single analytical expression is provided to obtain the DQE of a hybrid pixel detector. The method developed in this thesis will make it possible to optimize a detector design according to a particular medical application. It will also permit modifications and new features to be included without having to construct a full detector system.

Medical X-ray imaging is an important tool in diagnostic radiology. The ionising-radiation dose to the patient is justified by the clinical benefit of the examination. Nonetheless, detectors that operate at even lower doses and provide more information to the radiologist are desired. A hybrid pixel detector has the potential to provide a leap in detector technology as it incorporates a more advanced signal-processing capability than currently used detectors. The DIXI digital detector is a hybrid pixel detector developed for X-ray imaging. It consists of a readout chip and a semiconductor sensor. The division in two parts makes it possible to optimise each part individually. The detector is divided into square pixels with a size of 270 x 270 μm2. DIXI has the ability to count single photons and every readout pixel has two embedded counters to allow the acquisition of two images close in time. A discriminator enables the selection of photons with energies above a preset threshold level. The readout chip Angie has been developed and its performance has been evaluated in terms of noise, threshold variation and capability to perform energy weighted counting. Silicon sensors have been fabricated, and a control system for DIXI has been designed and built. An electroless process for deposition of Ni/Au bumps on the chip and sensor has been optimised as a preparation for the assembly of a complete detector, which is being assembled by flip-chip bonding using anisotropic conductive film. A simulation library for the DIXI detector has been set up and results on the image quality are reported for different exposures and working conditions. A theoretical model for hybrid pixel detectors based on the cascaded linear system theory has been developed. The model can be used to investigate and optimise the detector for different detector configurations and operating conditions.

Hybrid pixel detectors have been demonstrated to provide excellent quality detection of ionising photon radiation, particularly in X-ray imaging. Recently, there has been interest in developing a hybrid pixel detector specifically for photon dosimetry. This thesis is on the design, implementation, and preliminary characterisation of the Dosepix readout chip. Dosepix has 256 square pixels of 220 mm side-length, constituting 12.4 mm2 of photo-sensitive area per detector. The combination of multiple pixels provides many parallel processors with limited input flux, resulting in a radiation dose monitor which can continuously record data and provide a real-time report on personal dose equivalent. Energy measurements are obtained by measuring the time over threshold of each photon and a state machine in the pixel sorts the detected photon event into appropriate energy bins. Each pixel contains 16 digital thresholds with 16 registers to store the associated energy bins. Preliminary measurements of Dosepix chips bump bonded to silicon sensors show very promising results. The pixel has a frontend noise of 120 e-. In low power mode, each chip consumes 15 mW, permitting its use in a portable, battery-powered system. Direct time over threshold output from the hybrid pixel detector assembly reveal distinctive photo-peaks correctly identifying the nature of incident photons, and verification measurements indicate that the pixel binning state machines accurately categorise charge spectra. Personal dose equivalent reconstruction using this data has a flat response for a large range of photon energies and personal dose equivalent rates.

L’approche qui a été développée dans l’équipe imXgam du CPPM est de combiner sur un unique support rotatif les modules de détection de la caméra pour petit animal ClearPET avec un détecteur de rayons X à comptage de photons dans le but d’acquérir simultanément des images anatomiques (TDM) et fonctionnelles (TEP) du même champ de vue. L’étude préliminaire du système hybride ClearPET/XPAD3 menée en simulation avec Gate a permis d’implémenter une nouvelle géométrie de détection TEP à 21 détecteurs phoswich, de fixer les grandes lignes de l’assemblage TEP/TDM, ainsi que d’étudier et de solutionner les difficultés liées au régime de fonctionnement bimodal. Pour finir, l’outil de simulation a également permis d’imaginer comment un tel système pourrait judicieusement exploiter la corrélation spatiale et temporelle des informations anatomo-fonctionnelles.Du point de vue de l’instrumentation, ce projet a vu la mise en œuvre du système hybride simultané ClearPET/XPAD3. Une fois les deux systèmes TEP et TDM opérationnels individuellement,il a été démontré, d’une part que le ClearPET est parfaitement capable d’opérer en régime de fonctionnement simultané moyennant un blindage approprié de ses modules de détection, et d’autre part que la nouvelle génération de caméra à pixels hybrides XPAD3-S/Si s’avère très prometteuse compte tenu de la bonne qualité des premières images reconstruites.Finalement, la preuve de concept d’une acquisition TEP/TDM simultanée avec une source de positons scellée et un tube à rayons X a pu être concrètement démontrée. / The pathway that has been followed by the imXgam team at CPPM was to combine on a single rotating device the detector modules of the small animal PET scanner ClearPET witha photon counting X-ray detector in order to perform simultaneous acquisition of images from the anatomy (X-ray CT) and from the metabolic function (PET) of the common field-of-view.A preliminary study of the hybrid imaging system ClearPET/XPAD3 carried out using Gateled us to form a new PET detection assembly based on 21 phoswich modules, to fix the design of the PET/CT device, as well as to study and solve the difficulties arising from simultaneous hybrid imaging. Last but not least, the simulation tool also allowed us for thinking how wellsuch a system could judiciously use the spatial and temporal correlations between anatomicand functional information.From an instrumentation point of view, we succeeded to set up the ClearPET/XPAD3 prototype.Once both imaging systems were operational individually, we demonstrated on one sidethat the ClearPET prototype was perfectly capable of performing correctly in simultaneousacquisition conditions, providing that the detector modules were appropriately shielded. Onthe other side, the new generation of the hybrid pixel camera using the XPAD3-S chip provedto be quite promising given the good quality of the first reconstructed images.Finally, the proof of concept of simultaneous PET/CT data acquisition was made using a sealed positron source and an X-ray tube.

L'approche développée par l'équipe imXgam du CPPM a consisté à adapter la technologie des pixels hybrides XPAD à l'imagerie biomédicale. C'est dans cette optique qu'un micro-tomodensitomètre PIXSCAN II basé sur la nouvelle génération de détecteurs à pixels hybrides appelés XPAD3 a été développé. Ce travail de thèse décrit la démarche engagée pour évaluer l'apport de la technologie à pixels hybrides en tomodensitométrie par rayons X en termes de contraste et de dose et pour explorer de nouvelles possibilités d'imagerie biomédicale à faible dose. L'évaluation des performances ainsi que la validation des résultats obtenus avec les données acquises avec le détecteur XPAD3 ont été comparées aux résultats obtenus avec la caméra CCD DALSA XR-4 similaire aux détecteurs utilisés dans la plupart des micro-TDM usuels. Le détecteur XPAD3 permet d'obtenir des images reconstruites d'une qualité satisfaisante et proche de celle des images de la caméra DALSA XR-4, mais avec une meilleure résolution spatiale. A faible dose, les images du détecteur XPAD3 sont de meilleure qualité que celles de la caméra CCD. Du point de vue de l'instrumentation, ce projet a prouvé le bon fonctionnement du dispositif PIXSCAN II pour la souris. Nous avons pu reproduire une qualité d'image semblable à celle obtenue avec un détecteur à intégration de charges de type caméra CCD. Pour améliorer les performances du détecteur XPAD3, il va falloir optimiser la stabilité des seuils et avoir des courbes de réponses des pixels en fonction de l'énergie assez homogènes en utilisant un capteur plus dense comme le CdTe par exemple. / The pathway that has been followed by the imXgam team at CPPM was to adapt the hybrid pixel technology XPAD to biomedical imaging. It is in this context that the micro-CT PIXSCAN II based on the new generation of hybrid pixel detectors called XPAD3 has been developed. This thesis describes the process undertaken to assess the contribution of the hybrid pixel technology in X-ray computed tomography in terms of contrast and dose and to explore new opportunities for biomedical imaging at low doses. Performance evaluation as well as the validation of the results obtained with data acquired with the detector XPAD3 were compared to results obtained with the CCD camera DALSA XR-4 similar to detectors used in most conventional micro-CT systems. The detector XPAD3 allows to obtain reconstruced images of satisfactory quality close to that of images from the DALSA XR-4 camera, but with a better spatial resolution. At low doses, the images from the detector XPAD3 have a better quality that is those from CCD camera. From an instrumentation point of view, this project demonstrated the proper erations of the device PIXSCAN II for mouse imaging. We were able to reproduce an image quality similar to that obtained with a charge integration detector such as a CCD camera. To improve the performance of the detector XPAD3, we will have to optimize the stability of the thresholds and in order to obtain more homogeneous response curves of the pixels as a function as energy by using a denser sensor such as CdTe.

Dans le domaine de la tomographie par rayons X préclinique, la tomographie spectrale est une voie de plus en plus en plus explorée. Les objectifs de la tomographie spectrale sont la caractérisation et la quantification des tissus et agents de contraste que l'amélioration de contraste entre tissus mous. Cela passe par l'exploitation de l'information spectrale (ou énergétique) des photons X et non plus seulement par leur quantité détectée comme en tomographie standard par rayons X. L'intérêt de la tomographie spectrale se trouve renforcé par l'arrivée des caméras à pixels hybrides comme le XPAD qui ont la capacité de sélectionner les photons X en fonction de leur énergie. La caméra XPAD3, la troisième version du XPAD est construite pour fonctionner dans le micro-tomodensitomètre, PIXSCAN développé au CPPM.Dans ce contexte, cette thèse a deux buts~: participer au développement du PIXSCAN et effectuer une preuve de concept de la tomographie spectrale à l'aide du PIXSCAN. Le premier but est rempli grâce au développement de l'interface d'acquisition du PIXSCAN. Le second est accompli par l'implantation de la méthode par séparation de composantes dont le but est d'isoler les contributions photoélectrique, Compton et des agents de contraste. Ce travail débute par la caractérisation de la méthode et se termine par la preuve de concept sur données réelles acquises à l'aide du PIXSCAN. / In the field of preclinical X-ray tomography, spectral tomography is actively explorated. The aims of spectral tomography are the caracterisation of tissues and contrast agentstogether with the quantification of the latter and the enhancement of contrast between soft tissues. This is achived by the exploitation of spectral information (i.e. energy) and not only the detected quantities of photons X. The interest in spectral tomography is enforced by the arrival of hybrid pixel cameras like XPAD, because of their ability to select photons according to their energy. The XPAD3 camera, third version of XPAD, is built to be used in the micro-CT demonstrator PIXCAN fully developped at CPPM.In this context, this thesis has two goals : a contribution to the developement of the PIXSCAN and a realisation of a proof of concept of spectral tomography in PIXSCAN. The first goal is done by developing the data acquisition system of PIXSCAN. To accomplish the second one, we perform spectral tomography by implementing component separation in order to isolate photoelectric, compton and contrast agents contribution. This work begins by the caracterisation of this method and ends by a proof of concept on real data acquired by PIXSCAN.

L'imagerie gamma est une technique qui permet la localisation spatiale de sources radioactives. Les différentes applications de cette technique couvrent les phases de démantèlement des installations nucléaires ou de gestion des déchets nucléaires, mais aussi la radioprotection ou la sécurité intérieure. L'utilisation de caméras gamma permet de réduire la dose reçue par les opérateurs, et, par conséquent, de respecter le principe ALARA. Il existe deux techniques d’imagerie permettant la localisation de radioéléments émetteurs gamma : l’imagerie à masque codé et l’imagerie Compton. L’imagerie à masque codé utilise la modulation spatiale du flux de photons gamma incidents par collimateur multi-trous placé entre la source et le détecteur. Elle présente l’avantage d’être extrêmement performante pour des émetteurs gamma « basses énergies », aussi bien en matière de sensibilité, qu’en matière de résolution angulaire. L'imagerie Compton, quant à elle, repose sur l’utilisation de la mécanique de diffusion Compton. L'énergie déposée pendant le processus de diffusion déterminera l'angle de diffusion, et les positions des interactions détermineront la direction des rayons gamma entrants. La position de la source radioactive peut ainsi être limitée à un cône. Si plusieurs cônes sont utilisés, alors la position où le plus grand nombre de cônes se chevauchent correspond à la position de la source radioactive. Une des limitations de cette technique concerne la localisation des émetteurs gamma « basses énergies », pour lesquels la résolution angulaire est fortement dégradée allant jusqu’à l’impossibilité complète de trouver la position. L’objectif de ces travaux est de développer un prototype d’imageur hybride associant les techniques d’imagerie à masque codé et d’imagerie Compton, afin de tirer profit des avantages de chacun des types d’imagerie. Les différents travaux menés, autour du détecteur pixellisé Timepix3, mais aussi en matière de développement d’algorithmes mathématiques, ont permis de proposer deux prototypes d’imageurs hybrides. Les résultats obtenus à l’issue de ces travaux de recherche ont permis de valider expérimentalement les performances d’un des prototypes d’imageurs et d’illustrer l’intérêt d’un système hybride. / Gamma imaging is a technique that allows the spatial localization of radioactive sources. The various applications of this technique cover decommissioning phases of nuclear facilities, nuclear waste management applications, but also radiation protection or Homeland Security. Using gamma camera reduces the dose received by operators and consequently contributes to the respect of the ALARA principle. There are two imaging techniques for the localization of gamma ray emitters: coded aperture imaging and Compton imaging. Coded aperture imaging relies on the spatial modulation of the incident gamma-ray flux by a multi-hole collimator placed between the detector and the radioactive source. It has the advantage of being extremely efficient for « low energy » gamma-ray emitters in terms of sensitivity and angular resolution. On the other hand, Compton imaging is based of the Compton scattering kinematic. The energy deposited during the scattering process will determine the scattering angle, and the positions of the interactions will determine the direction of the incoming gamma-ray. The position of the radioactive source can thus be limited to a cone. If several cones are used, then, the position where the greatest number of cones overlap corresponds to the position of the radioactive source. One limitations of this technique concerns the location of « low energy » gamma-ray emitters, for which the angular resolution is strongly degraded until it is completely not localizable. The objective of this work is to develop a prototype of hybrid imager that combines coded aperture and Compton imaging techniques in order to take advantage of each type of imaging. The different studies carried out, around the Timepix3 pixel detector, but also in the development of mathematical algorithms, have led to propose two prototypes of hybrid imager. The results obtained from this research work made it possible to validate experimentally the performance of one of the imager prototypes, and to illustrate the interest of a hybrid system.