Lithium-ion batteries are a possible choice for the energy storage system onboard hybrid electric vehicles and low-earth-orbit satellites, but lifetime performance remains an issue. The challenge is to diagnose the effects of ageing and then investigate the dependence of the magnitude of the deterioration on different accelerating factors (e.g. state-of-charge (SOC), depth-of-discharge (DOD) and temperature). Lifetime studies were undertaken incorporating different accelerating factors for two different applications: (1) coin cells with a LixNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2-based positive electrode were studied with a EUCAR power-assist HEV cycle, and (2) laminated commercial cells with a LixMn2O4-based positive electrode were studied with a low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellite cycle. Cells were disassembled and the electrochemical performance of harvested electrodes measured with two- and three-electrode cells. The LixNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2-based electrode impedance results were interpreted with a physically-based three-electrode model incorporating justifiable effects of ageing. The performance degradation of the cells with nickelate chemistry was independent of the cycling condition or target SOC, but strongly dependent on the temperature. The positive electrode was identified as the main source of impedance increase, with surface films having a composition that was independent of the target SOC, but with more of the same species present at higher temperatures. Furthermore, impedance results were shown to be highly dependent on both the electrode SOC during the measurement and the pressure applied to the electrode surface. An ageing hypothesis incorporating a resistive layer on the current collector and a local contact resistance (dependent on SOC) between the carbon and active material, both possibly leading to particle isolation, was found to be adequate in fitting the harvested aged electrode impedance data. The performance degradation of the cells with manganese chemistry was accelerated by both higher temperatures and larger DODs. The impedance increase was small, manifested in a SOC-dependent increase of the high-frequency semicircle and a noticeable increase of the high-frequency real axis intercept. The positive electrode had a larger decrease in capacity and increase in the magnitude of the high-frequency semi-circle (particularly at high intercalated lithium-ion concentrations) in comparison with the negative electrode. This SOC-dependent change was associated with cells cycled for either extended periods of time or at higher temperatures with a large DOD. An observed change of the cycling behaviour in the second potential plateau for the LixMn2O4-based electrode provided a possible kinetic-based explanation for the change of the high-frequency semi-circle. / Litiumjonbatteriet är en möjlig kandidat för energilagring i hybridfordon och i satelliter i låg omloppsbana, men än så länge är livslängden på batterierna ett problem. Utmaningen ligger i att kunna förstå hur batteriet åldras genom att utforska hur åldringsprocessen accelereras av faktorer som laddningstillstånd, urladdningsdjup och temperatur. Livslängdsstudier för två olika typer av batterier tänkta för olika applikationer utfördes: (1) knappceller med positiva LixNi0,8Co0,15Al0,05O2-baserade elektroder studerades med en effektstödd (power-assist) hybridcykel från EUCAR, och (2) laminerade kommersiella celler med positiva LixMn2O4-baserade elektroder studerades med en satellitcykel, avsedd för en satellit med låg omloppsbana. Cellerna öppnades och de uttagna elektrodernas elektrokemiska egenskaper utvärderades i två- och tre-elektroduppställningar. Resultaten från elektrokemiska impedansmätningar för den positiva LixNi0,8Co0,15Al0,05O2-baserade elektroden tolkades med hjälp av en fysikalisk tre-elektrod modell som tog hänsyn till de i litteraturen främst föreslagna effekterna av åldring. Prestandadegraderingen av celler med nickelkemi var oberoende av cykel och laddningstillståndet där åldringen skedde, men starkt beroende av temperaturen. Den positiva elektroden visade sig vara den största orsaken till impedansökningen i batteriet. Ytfilmerna på den positiva elektroden hade en sammansättning som var oberoende av laddningstillståndet men beroende av temperaturen. Impedansresultaten från de uttagna elektroderna var starkt beroende av både laddningstillstånd och yttre tryck på elektrodytan. Det visade sig att det var tillräckligt att ta hänsyn till ett resistivt skikt på strömtilledaren och en lokal kontaktresistans mellan kolet och det aktiva materialet (som är beroende av laddningstillståndet) för att anpassa modellen till impedansdata mätt på de uttagna elektroderna. Prestandadegraderingen av celler med mangankemi påskyndades av både högre temperaturer och högre urladdningsdjup. Impedansen ökade något, då både högfrekvenshalvcirkeln och högfrekvensintercepten ändrades. Positiva elektroden hade en större degradering i kapaciteten och en större ökning i magnituden av högfrekvenshalvcirkeln (speciellt vid högre litiumjon koncentrationer i elektroden) jämfört med den negativa elektroden. Denna laddningstillståndsberoende impedans-ökning var kopplad till celler som hade cyklats under en längre tid eller vid en högre temperatur och med ett högt urladdningsdjup. Ökningen i magnituden av högfrekvenshalvcirkeln skulle kunna vara relaterad till kinetiska begränsningar eftersom cyklingsbeteendet vid andra spänningsplatån ändrades samtidigt för de LixMn2O4-baserade elektroderna. / QC 20100621

The popularity of the internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles has contributed to global warming problem and degradation of air quality around the world. Furthermore, the vehicles??? massive demand on gas has played a role in the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the considerable rise in the gas price over the past twenty years. Those existing challenges force the auto-industry to move towards the technology development of vehicle electrification. An electrified vehicle is driven by one or more electric motors. And the electricity comes from the onboard energy storage system (ESS). Currently, no single type of green energy source could meet all the requirements to drive a vehicle. A hybrid energy storage system (HESS), as a combination of battery and ultra-capacitor units, is expected to improve the overall performance of vehicles??? ESS. This thesis focuses on the design of HESS and the development of a HESS prototype for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Battery unit (BU), ultra-capacitor unit (UC) and a DC/DC converter interfacing BU and UC are the three main components of HESS. The research work first reviews literatures regarding characteristics of BU, UC and power electronic converters. HESS design is then conducted based on the considerations of power capability, energy efficiency, size and cost optimization. Besides theoretical analysis, a HESS prototype is developed to prove the principles of operation as well. The results from experiment are compared with those from simulation.

Lithium‐ion batteries are particularly suitable as energy storage solutions in high power applications, such as hybrid electric vehicles. It is generally considered that one of the processes that limit the power density for lithium‐ion batteries is the mass transport in the electrolyte. Yet, it is still difficult to find a set of properties that fully describe the mass transport for the most common electrolytes. In this work, characterization studies of the mass transport were undertaken for two technically important lithium‐ion battery electrolytes: (1) a liquid electrolyte which consist of LiPF6 dissolved in ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) and ethylene carbonate (EC) and, (2) a gel electrolyte which consists of LiPF6 dissolved in ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate (PC) and poly(vinylidenefluoride‐hexafluoropropylene) (P(VdFHFP)).The mass transport in the electrolytes was characterized by combining several experiments. The Maxwell‐Stefan equation was used as basis for the characterization. Models of the transport were formulated from the equation and the apparent transport properties were identified. The characterization methods were first analyzed mathematically in order to establish at which conditions the characterization experiments should be performed. The values of the apparent transport properties were then obtained by optimizing the models to the experimental responses. In order to give the characterization results a comprehensible interpretation and to allow benchmarking of electrolytes, the concept of a normalized potential gradient was introduced.The characterization results of the liquid electrolyte were used in a full cell model of a LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 | LiPF6 EC:EMC (3:7) | MAG‐10 cell. The model was developed to analyze the mass transport during a hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test. The analysis was made with a method where the polarization was split up into parts each associated with a process within the cell. The optimum composition in terms of mass transport was found to lie between 0.5 and 1.2 mol/dm3 LiPF6 for the liquid electrolyte and between 5 and 7 wt. % LiPF6 for the gel electrolyte. Less amount of polymer in the gel electrolyte gave a faster mass transport. It was also found that the mass transport in the liquid electrolyte contributed to a major part of the polarization during HPPC tests. / Litiumjonbatterier är speciellt lämpliga som ackumulatorer i högeffektsapplikationer som elhybridfordon. Det är idag allmänt accepterat att en av processerna som begränsar effekttätheten för litiumjonbatterier är masstransporten i elektrolyten. Trots detta är det fortfarande svårt att få tag på data som fullständigt beskriver masstransporten i de vanligaste elektrolyterna. I det här arbetet har masstransportkarakteriseringar gjorts för två tekniskt viktiga elektrolyter: (1) en vätskeelektrolyt som består av LiPF6 upplöst i etylenkarbonat (EC) och etylmetylkarbonat (EMC), och (2) en gel elektrolyt som består av LiPF6 upplöst i EC, propylenkarbonat (PC) och poly(vinylidene fluoride‐hexafluoro propylene) (P(VdFHFP)). Masstransporten i elektrolyterna karakteriserades genom att kombinera ett antal karakteriseringsexperiment. Maxwell‐Stefans ekvation användes som utgångspunkt i karakteriseringarna. Modeller av transporten formulerades från ekvationen och de effektiva transportegenskaperna identifierades. En matematisk analys gjordes först av karakteriseringstekniken, så att det kunde fastslås för vilka förhållanden experimenten skulle utföras. Värderna av transportegenskaperna erhölls genom att optimera modellerna till det experimentella beteendet. För att ge karakteriseringsresultaten en begriplig tolkning och för att kunna mäta prestandan av elektrolyter, infördes konceptet normaliserad potentialgradient. Resultatet från karakteriseringen av vätskeelektrolyten användes i en model av en LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 | LiPF6 EC:EMC (3:7) | MAG‐10 cell. Modellen utvecklades för att analysera masstransporten i cellen under ett hybridpulstest (HPPC). Analysen gjordes med en metod där polarisationen delades upp i delar som var och en var kopplad till en process i batteriet. Den optimala sammansättningen med avseende på masstransporten låg i regionen 0.5–1.2 mol/dm3 LiPF6 för vätskeelektrolyten och 5‐7 vikt% LiPF6 för gelelektrolyten. Mindre mängd polymer i gelelektrolyten gav en snabbare masstransport. Det konstaterades också att masstransporten i vätskeelektrolyten bidrog med en av de största delarna till polarisationen i HPPC testen. / QC 20110128

Η μόλυνση του περιβάλλοντος από τα μέσα μεταφοράς και η συνεχής μείωση των αποθεμάτων των ορυκτών καυσίμων αποτελούν τους δύο κύριους λόγους για τη στροφή των τμημάτων έρευνας της παγκόσμιας αυτοκινητοβιομηχανίας στην επινόηση οικολογικότερων μέσων μετακίνησης. Από αυτή την προσπάθεια προέκυψαν τα ηλεκτρικά υβριδικά οχήματα, τα οποία περιορίζουν την κατανάλωση καυσίμου και τις εκπομπες ρύπων συγκριτικά με συμβατικά οχήματα παραπλήσιων τεχνικών χαρακτηριστικών. Τα υβριδικά οχήματα είναι, ουσιαστικά, ο προάγγελος και το πεδίο δοκιμής και εξέλιξης της αμιγούς ηλεκτροκίνησης. Ο κοινός στόχος της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας και άλλων δύο διπλωματικών εργασιών, οι οποίες εκπονήθηκαν παράλληλα με αυτή, είναι η μετατροπή ενός συμβατικού βενζινοκίνητου αυτοκινήτου σε ηλεκτρικό υβριδικό όχημα. Το αρχικό μέλημα υπήρξε η εύρεση του κατάλληλου οχήματος για τη συγκεκριμένη εφαρμογή. Την προμήθεια του οχήματος ακολούθησε η έρευνα της αγοράς για την εύρεση του κατάλληλου ηλεκτρικού κινητήρα. Ο κινητήρας, ο οποίος επιλέχθηκε, είναι τριφασικός ασύγχρονος. Εν συνεχεία, αγοράστηκαν συσσωρευτές οξέος μολύβδου ως εναλλακτική πηγή ενέργειας του οχήματος. Ακολούθησε εμπεριστατωμένη μελέτη για τη μηχανολογική προσαρμογή του ηλεκτρικού κινητήρα και των συσσωρευτών στο όχημα και πραγματοποιήθηκε αυτή η εργασία. O ηλεκτρικός κινητήρας τοποθετήθηκε επί του διαφορικού, ενώ κατασκευάστηκε ειδική βάση για τους συσσωρευτές. Υπολογίστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε κατάλληλο σύστημα μετάδοσης για τη μεταφορά της κίνησης από τον κινητήρα στον άξονα μετάδοσης της κίνησης του οχήματος, ώστε να ανταποκρίνεται στις ανάγκες κίνησης του. Το γεγονός ότι ο κινητήρας χρειάζεται σύστημα υδρόψυξης για την ασφαλή και αποδοτική λειτουργία του είχε ως αποτέλεσμα την κατασκευή κατάλληλης διάταξης. Το δεδομένο ότι οι συσσωρευτές παράγουν συνεχές ρεύμα, ενώ ο κινητήρας απαιτεί τροφοδοσία με εναλλασσόμενο ρεύμα οδήγησε στην κατασκευή ενός τριφασικού αντιστροφέα ισχύος. Ο αντιστροφέας αποτελεί μια ηλεκτρική διάταξη, η οποία μετατρέπει το συνεχές ρεύμα σε εναλλασσόμενο. Το απαιτούμενο επίπεδο τάσης εξόδου του αντιστροφέα για την τροφοδοσία του κινητήρα προϋποθέτει συγκεκριμένο επίπεδο τάσης στην είσοδο του μετατροπέα, το οποίο είναι υψηλότερο από την τάση εξόδου της συστοιχίας των συσσωρευτών. Επιχειρήθηκε, λοιπόν, η εξομοίωση και η κατασκευή ενός αμφικατευθυντήριου μετατροπέα συνεχούς τάσης σε συνεχή. Η ιδιότητα του είναι η ανύψωση του επιπέδου τάσης των συσσωρευτών κατά τη φάση της τροφοδότησης του κινητήρα αλλά και ο υποβιβασμός της τάσης για τη φόρτιση των συσσωρευτών κατά την επιστροφή ενέργειας από τη λειτουργία του κινητήρα ως γεννήτρια, τη λεγόμενη διαδικασία της αναγεννητικής πέδησης. Ο έλεγχος του ηλεκτρικού κινητήρα πραγματοποιήθηκε μέσω της τεχνικής του άμεσου ελέγχου ροπής (DTC), ενός είδους άμεσου διανυσματικού ελέγχου. / The environmental pollution caused by all means of transport and the continued reduction of stocks of fossil fuels are the two main reasons, which directed the global automotive research in developing “greener” means of transport. From this effort emerged hybrid electric vehicles, which reduce fuel consumption and emissions compared to conventional vehicles with similar technical characteristics. Hybrid vehicles are essentially the precursor and the field for testing and developing pure electric traction. The common objective of this and two other diploma theses, which were prepared in parallel with it, is to convert a conventional gasoline car to a hybrid electric one. The initial concern was to find a suitable vehicle for this application. The supply of the vehicle was followed by the market research to find a suitable motor. The selected motor is a three-phase asynchronous motor. Subsequently, lead acid batteries were purchased as an alternative energy source for the vehicle. This was followed by a thorough study of the mechanical adjustment of the electric motor and battery in the vehicle and the planned work was performed. The electric motor is adapted on the differential and a base was constructed to fit the batteries. A suitable transmission system was built to transmit motion from the electric motor to the transmission axle of the vehicle to meet the needs of the driving conditions. The fact that the motor needs a water cooling system for its safe and efficient operation resulted in the construction of an adequate array. Taking into account that the batteries produce direct current, while the motor requires the supply of alternating current led to the design and construction of a three-phase power inverter at the laboratory. The inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current to alternating current. The demanded level of voltage in the inverter’s output to power the motor requires a specific voltage level at the input of the converter, which is higher than the output voltage of the battery pack. Therefore, the simulation and the construction of a bidirectional DC to DC voltage converter was attempted at the laboratory. The aim is to raise the level of battery voltage during the phase of the electric machine functioning as a motor and to reduce the voltage level to charge the batteries during the phase that the electric machine functions as a generator, a process called regenerative braking. The control of the electric motor was achieved by the technique of direct torque control (DTC), a kind of direct vector control.

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματεύεται τη μετατροπή ενός συμβατικού αυτοκινήτου σε υβριδικό ηλεκτρικό όχημα. Προς αυτή την κατεύθυνση, μελετάται και κατασκευάζεται το ηλεκτροκινητήριο σύστημα του οχήματος, το οποίο έχει τοπολογία παράλληλης διάταξης. Τα υποσυστήματα που το συνθέτουν είναι ένας τριφασικός ασύγχρονος ηλεκτρικός κινητήρας, μία συστοιχία ηλεκτροχημικών συσσωρευτών και οι απαραίτητοι ηλεκτρονικοί μετατροπείς ισχύος. Το υβριδικό όχημα διαθέτει τη δυνατότητα επιστροφής ενέργειας κατά την επιβράδυνση, φορτίζοντας τους ηλεκτροχημικούς συσσωρευτές (αναγεννητική πέδηση). Για την προσαρμογή του ηλεκτροκινητήριου συστήματος στο υπάρχον συμβατικό κινητήριο σύστημα του αυτοκινήτου έλαβαν χώρα ορισμένες μηχανολογικές μετατροπές και κατασκευάστηκε ένα σύστημα υδρόψυξης για τον ηλεκτροκινητήρα. Για τη ενεργειακή διαχείριση του όλου συστήματος έγινε εμπεριστατωμένη ηλεκτρολογική μελέτη. Για την τροφοδοσία του τριφασικού ασύγχρονου κινητήρα σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε ένας ηλεκτρονικός μετατροπέας ισχύος συνεχούς τάσης σε τριφασική εναλλασσόμενη τάση (τριφασικός αντιστροφέας). Για τη λειτουργία του τριφασικού κινητήρα σε επίπεδα ονομαστικής ισχύος απαιτήθηκε η ανύψωση της συνεχούς τάσης των μπαταριών και για αυτό το λόγο έγινε σχεδιασμός, προσομοίωση και κατασκευή ενός αμφικατευθυντήριου ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα ανύψωσης/υποβιβασμού συνεχούς τάσης σε συνεχή τάση. Ο έλεγχος της ηλεκτρικής μηχανής υλοποιείται από την μέθοδο Αμέσου Ελέγχου Ροπής (DTC), η οποία αποτελεί ένα είδος αμέσου διανυσματικού ελέγχου. Παράλληλα με αυτή τη διπλωματική εργασία, εκπονήθηκαν δύο ακόμα διπλωματικές εργασίες πάνω στο θέμα του υβριδικού οχήματος. / The present diploma thesis deals with the conversion of a conventional car to a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). To this direction, the powertrain of the vehicle is designed and constructed, composing a parallel hybrid topology. The subsystems of the electric propulsion system are a three-phase asynchronous electric motor, an electrochemical battery pack and the necessary power electronic converters. The hybrid electric vehicle has the ability to return energy and charge the batteries during deceleration (regenerative braking). In order to adapt the electrical compounds to the existing conventional propulsion system, some mechanical modifications had to be made. Furthermore, a water cooling system was designed and constructed in order to cool the electric motor. The energy management of the electrical system is analysed. The power of the three-phase asynchronous motor is controlled by a three-phase DC to AC inverter. The operation of the motor at its nominal power requires the boost of the battery voltage level. For this reason, a bidirectional DC to DC boost / buck converter was firstly simulated to ensure its proper operation. The above power converters were designed and constructed at the laboratory. The control of the electric motor is implemented by the Direct Torque Control method (DTC), which is a kind of direct vector control. In parallel with this work, two more diploma theses were prepared on the project of the hybrid electric vehicle.

Dans les véhicules hybrides électrique-essence, les stratégies de gestion de l’énergie déterminent la répartition des flux d'énergies des moteurs thermique et électrique avec pour objectif classique la réduction de la consommation. Par ailleurs, pour respecter les seuils réglementaires d’émissions polluantes, les motorisations essence sont équipées d’un catalyseur 3-voies chauffé par les gaz d’échappement. Une fois amorcé, ce catalyseur convertit presque entièrement les émissions polluantes du moteur. C’est donc au démarrage que la plupart de la pollution est émise, lorsque le catalyseur est froid et que la pollution du moteur n’est pas convertie. La chauffe du catalyseur est donc l’étape clé de la dépollution. Ce mémoire propose une démarche de prise en compte des émissions polluantes par la gestion d’énergie. Le véhicule hybride est assimilé à un système dynamique à deux états, l’état de charge batterie et la température du catalyseur. Un problème d’optimisation dynamique est défini, qui minimise un critère original pondérant judicieusement la consommation et les émissions polluantes. La théorie de la commande optimale, avec les Principes du Minimum de Pontryaguine et de Bellman, permet de résoudre ce problème d’optimisation. Des stratégies optimales sont déduites et simulées avec un modèle de véhicule intégrant un modèle thermique multi-zones de catalyseur, validé expérimentalement, qui simule précisément la chauffe. Le compromis entre la consommation et la pollution est exploré. Une stratégie de chauffe du catalyseur, plus méthodique, analytique et efficace que les stratégies empiriques actuelles, est alors proposée. Cette stratégie est validée expérimentalement dans un environnement HyHIL (Hybrid Hardware In the loop). Une importante réduction de la pollution est obtenue, confortant l’approche d’optimisation dynamique pour la mise au point des stratégies de gestion d’énergie du véhicule hybride. / In hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles, the energy management strategies determine the distribution of engine and motor energy flows with fuel consumption reduction as classical objective. Furthermore, to comply with pollutant emissions standards, SI engines are equipped with 3-Way Catalytic Converters (3WCC) heated by exhaust gases. When 3WCC temperature is over the light-off temperature, engine pollutant emissions are almost totally converted. Most of the pollution is produced at the vehicle start, when the 3WCC is cold and the engine pollution is not converted. The 3WCC heating is thus the key aspect of the pollutant emissions. This dissertation proposes an approach to take into account pollutant emissions in energy management. The hybrid electric vehicle is considered as a dynamic system with two states, the battery state of charge and 3WCC temperature. A dynamic optimization problem is defined, minimizing an original criterion weighting judiciously fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. Optimal control theory, with the Pontryaguine Minimum and Bellman principles, allows solving this optimization problem. Optimal strategies are derived and simulated with a vehicle model including a multi-zones 3WCC thermal model, experimentally validated, which simulates precisely the 3WCC heating. The compromise between fuel consumption and pollutant emissions is explored. Then, an innovative 3WCC heating strategy is proposed and validated experimentally in a HyHIL (Hybrid Hardware In the loop) environment. A significant reduction of the pollutant emissions is obtained, strengthening the dynamic optimal approach to set up the energy management strategies for hybrid vehicles.

Le véhicule hybride électrique dispose de deux sources d’énergie distinctes pour se mouvoir : le carburant, ainsi qu’un système de stockage électrique ayant la particularité d’être réversible. La loi de gestion d’énergie a pour objectif de superviser les flux de puissance dans le groupe motopropulseur en intervenant sur le point de fonctionnement des organes de celui-ci, et ce dans le but d’optimiser un critère donné. La loi de gestion d’énergie se formalise donc par un problème de commande optimale dont le critère à minimiser tient compte de la consommation de carburant du véhicule sur un trajet donné. La solution de ce problème peut se calculer hors ligne lorsque toutes les données du trajet sont parfaitement connues à l’avance, hypothèse qui n’est plus admissible pour une stratégie embarquée sur véhicule dont l’objectif est alors de s’approcher au maximum du résultat optimal. Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit mettent en avant la commande optimale orientée multi-objectif pour répondre à la problématique du compromis inter-prestations au coeur du développement d’un véhicule de série. Une loi de gestion d’énergie tenant compte du compromis entre consommation et agrément de conduite, ainsi qu’une autre traitant le compromis entre consommation et vieillissement batterie sont proposées. Les stratégies présentées s’inscrivent également dans une approche modulaire tirée de la solution de nature transversale issue de l’Equivalent Consumption Minimization strategy (ECMS). Ainsi, la commande du véhicule hybride rechargeable, du Mild-Hybride, ainsi que d’architectures hybrides complexes disposant d’une transmission automatique, de deux machines électriques ou deux systèmes de stockage électriques, est ici traitée à travers un socle commun. Cette approche permet de réduire le temps de développement des stratégies qui partagent un maximum d’éléments communs. / The hybrid electric vehicle uses two different energy sources to propel itself: fuel as well as a reversible electric storage system. The energy management strategy aims at supervising the power flows inside the powertrain by choosing the operating points of the different components so as to optimize a given criterion. The energy management strategy is formulated as an optimal control problem where the criterion to be minimized takes into account the total fuel consumption of the vehicle on the considered trip. The optimal solution can be calculated off-line when the vehicle’s mission is perfectly known, an assumption no longer admissible for an embedded strategy whose main objective is to get as close as possible to the optimal result. The work presented in this manuscript highlights the potential of multi-objective optimal control to handle the features’ trade-offs inherent to the development of production vehicle. An energy management strategy taking into account the trade-off between fuel consumption and drivability, as well as one dealing with the trade-off between fuel consumption and battery state of health, are proposed. The presented strategies share a modular approach following the transversal solution of the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS). As a result, the control policy of the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, the Mild-Hybrid, together with complex hybrid architectures provided with an automated transmission, two electric machines or two electric storage systems, is tackled through a common base. This approach allows to reduce the development period of the energy management strategies which shares a maximum of common elements.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2017-04-24T18:25:05Z No. of bitstreams: 1 rodolfolacerdavalle.pdf: 17326163 bytes, checksum: b5bfc03806c064bdf98c9890ed322936 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-04-25T12:14:13Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 rodolfolacerdavalle.pdf: 17326163 bytes, checksum: b5bfc03806c064bdf98c9890ed322936 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-25T12:14:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 rodolfolacerdavalle.pdf: 17326163 bytes, checksum: b5bfc03806c064bdf98c9890ed322936 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-03-07 / Esta dissertação apresenta as etapas de desenvolvimento de um sistema de acionamento de um motor CC de ímãs permanentes sem escovas para aplicação em veículos elétricos de pequeno porte. O motor é acionado por um inversor fonte de tensão trifásico (VSI, Voltage Source Inverter) baseado em interruptores IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor). Os sinais de comutação dos interruptores são gerados por uma estratégia de modulação vetorial. Sinais gerados por três sensores de efeito Hall são usados para detectar a posição angular do rotor. O motor é controlado a partir de duas malhas. Uma malha externa controla a velocidade enquanto a malha interna controla as correntes de fase do motor. O desempenho de dois tipos de controladores foram investigados para o controle das correntes sintetizadas pelo VSI: (i) controlador proporcional– integral no sistema de coordenadas síncrono e (ii) controlador proporcional–integral com integradores em múltiplos sistemas de coordenadas rotativas. Além das malhas de controle, o sistema de acionamento foi projetado com uma estratégia de desacoplamento das correntes de controle e uma ação preditiva para compensar o efeito das tensões contra–eletromotriz trapezoidais geradas por fase pelo motor. Um protótipo experimental do sistema de 5 kW foi montado em laboratório. Os algoritmos de controle do motor e do VSI, juntamente com o algoritmo de deteção de posição do rotor foi implementado em um controlador digital de sinais TMS320F28335. Resultados experimentais são apresentados, discutidos e utilizados para validar as estratégias de controle. / This dissertation presents the development of a permanent magnet brushless DC motor drive (PMBLDC) for small electric vehicles applications. A three–phase voltage source inverter (VSI) based on IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) is used to drive the electric motor. The semiconductor switches are controlled by space vector modulation (SVM). Signals from three Hall effect sensors are used to detect the rotor angular position. Two closed–loops are used to control the PMBLDC motor. The outer loop controls the rotor velocity while the inner loop controls the motor phase currents. Two types of controllers were investigated to synthesize the currents: (i) proportional– integral controller in synchronous reference frame and (ii) proportional–integral controller with multiple rotating synchronous reference frame integrators. Besides the current control loops, the drive system was designed considering the decoupling of the synthesized phase currents and a feed-forward electromotive force waveform compensation. An experimental prototype of 5 kW was built in laboratory. The motor and VSI control algorithms and the algorithm used to detect the rotor position were implemented in a TMS320F28335, digital signal controller. Experimental results are presented, discussed along with the validation of the control strategy.

La gestion énergétique (EMS) pour véhicules hybrides a pour objectif de déterminer la répartition de puissance entre les différentes sources d'énergie de manière à minimiser la consommation de carburant et/ou les émissions polluantes. L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer un EMS en prenant en compte des températures internes (la température du moteur et/ou la température du système de post-traitement). Dans une première partie et en utilisant une connaissance préalable du cycle de conduite, le calcul d'un EMS est formulé comme un problème de commande optimale. Ensuite, le principe du minimum de Pontryagin (PMP) est utilisé pour résoudre ce problème d'optimisation.~En se basant sur les résultats numériques obtenus, un compromis entre les performances de la stratégie de commande et de la complexité du modèle utilisé pour la calculer est établi. Les différents problèmes étudiés dans cette thèse sont des exemples des simplifications successives de modèle qui peuvent être regroupées dans le concept des perturbations régulières en contrôle optimal sous contrainte de commande discuté ici. Dans une deuxième partie, la formulation de l'ECMS a été généralisée pour inclure les dynamiques thermiques. Ces extensions définissent des stratégies sous-optimales que nous avons testées numériquement et expérimentalement. / Energy management system (EMS) for hybrid vehicles consists on determining the power split between the different energy sources in order to minimize the overall fuel consumption and/or pollutant emissions of the vehicle. The objective of this thesis is to develop an EMS taking into account the internal temperatures (engine temperature and/or catalyst temperature). In a first part and using a prior knowledge of vehicle driving cycle, the EMS design is formulated as an optimal control problem. Then, the PMP is used to solve this optimization problem. Based on the obtained numerical results, some trade-off between performance of the control strategy and complexity of the model used to calculate this strategy is established. The various problems studied in this thesis are examples of successive model simplifications which can be recast in the concept of regular perturbations in optimal control under input constraints discussed here. In a second part, the feedback law of ECMS is generalized to include thermal dynamics. This defines sub-optimal feedback strategies which we have tested numerically and experimentally.

De nouvelles architectures de traction (hybride, électrique) entrent en concurrence avec les motorisations thermiques conventionnelles. Des batteries Lithium-ion équipent ces véhicules innovants. La durabilité de ces batteries constitue un enjeu majeur mais dépend de nombreux paramètres environnementaux externes. Les outils de prédiction de durée de vie actuellement utilisés sont souvent trop simplificateurs dans leur approche. L’objet de ces travaux consiste à caractériser les conditions d’usage de ces batteries (température, tension, courant, SOC et DOD) afin d’étudier avec précision la durée de vie que l’on peut en attendre en fonction de l’application visée. Différents types de véhicules électrifiés (vélos à assistance électrique, voitures électriques, voitures hybrides, et trolleybus) ont été instrumentés afin de documenter les conditions d’usage réel des batteries. De larges volumes de données ont été recueillis puis analysés au moyen d’une méthode innovante qui s’appuie sur la classification d’impulsions de courant par l’algorithme des K-means et la génération de cycles synthétiques par modélisation par chaine de Markov. Les cycles synthétiques ainsi obtenus présentent des caractéristiques très proches de l’échantillon complet de données récoltées et permettent donc de représenter fidèlement l’usage réel. Utilisés lors de campagnes de vieillissement de batteries, ils sont susceptibles de permettre l’obtention d’une juste prédiction de la durée de vie des batteries pour l’application considérée. Plusieurs résultats expérimentaux sont présentés afin d’étayer la pertinence de cette approche / Lithium-ion batteries are being used as energy storage systems in recent electric and hybrid electric vehicles coming to market. Current cycle-life estimation techniques show evidence of discrepancy between laboratory results and real-world results. This work is aimed at characterizing actual battery usage in electrified transportation applications. Factors such as temperature, State Of Charge, Depth Of Discharge, current and voltage have to be carefully considered for accurate cycle-life prediction within a given application. Five electrified vehicles have been studied (two electric bicycles, one light EV, one mainstream HEV and one Heavy-Duty trolleybus). These vehicles have been equipped with sensors and data-logger and then test-driven on open roads under real-world conditions. Large amounts of data have been stored and later processed through an innovative method for analysis of actual usage. This method relies on data mining based on K-means clustering and synthetic duty cycle generation based on Markov chain modeling. Resulting synthetic cycles exhibit features similar to those observed on the large original datasets. This enables accurate prediction of cycle-life through realistic ageing trials of Lithium-ion batteries. Several experimental results are presented in order to assess the fitness of this method