Ce mémoire présente une étude comparative de quatre stratégies de gestion énergétique temps réel, appliquées d'une part à un véhicule hybride thermique-électrique, et d'autre part à un véhicule électrique à pile à combustible : contrôle basé sur des règles empirique (RBS), minimisation de la consommation équivalente (A-ECMS), loi de commande optimale (OCL) établie à partir d'une modélisation analytique du système et programmation dynamique stochastique (SDP) associée à une modélisation des cycles de conduite par chaîne de Markov. Le principe du minimum de Pontryaguin et la programmation dynamique, applicables hors ligne, sont mis en œuvre pour fournir des résultats de référence. Les problèmes d’implémentation numérique et de paramétrage des stratégies sont discutés. Une analyse statistique effectuée sur la base de cycles aléatoires générés par chaînes de Markov permet d’évaluer la robustesse des stratégies étudiées. Les résultats obtenus en simulation, puis sur un dispositif expérimental montrent que les méthodes les plus simples (RBS ou OCL) conduisent à des consommations élevées. SDP aboutit aux meilleures performances avec en moyenne la plus faible consommation de carburant dans les conditions réelles de conduite et un état énergétique final du système de stockage parfaitement maîtrisé. Les résultats d’A-ECMS sont comparables à ceux de SDP en moyenne, mais avec une plus grande dispersion, en particulier pour l'état de charge final. Afin d'améliorer les performances des méthode, des jeux de paramètres dédiés aux différents contextes de conduite sont considérés. / This thesis presents a comparative study between four recent real-time energy management strategies (EMS) applied to a hybrid electric vehicle and to a fuel cell vehicle applications: rule-based strategy (RBS), adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (A-ECMS), optimal control law (OCL) and stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) associated to driving cycle modeling by Markov chains. Pontryagin’s minimum principle and dynamic programming are applied to off-line optimization to provide reference results. Implementation and parameters setting issues are discussed for each strategy and a genetic algorithm is employed for A-ECMS calibration.The EMS robustness is evaluated using different types of driving cycles and a statistical analysis is conducted using random cycles generated by Markov process. Simulation and experimental results lead to the following conclusions. The easiest methods to implement (RBS and OCL) give rather high fuel consumption. SDP has the best overall performance in real-world driving conditions. It achieves the minimum average fuel consumption while perfectly respecting the state-sustaining constraint. A-ECMS results are comparable to SDP’s when using parameters well-adjusted to the upcoming driving cycle, but lacks robustness. Using parameter sets adjusted to the type of driving conditions (urban, road and highway) did help to improve A-ECMS performances.

Durch die Integration mindestens eines weiteren Energiewandlers in den Antriebsstrang gewinnen parallele Hybridfahrzeuge einen zusätzlichen Freiheitsgrad gegenüber konventionellen Fahrzeugen. Neben der Auslegung und Effizienz der einzelnen Antriebskomponenten, ist vor allem die Nutzung dieses zusätzlichen Freiheitsgrades entscheidend dafür verantwortlich, inwiefern die beim Betrieb eines Hybridfahrzeugs erwünschten Ziele, wie die Minimierung des Kraftstoffverbrauchs oder der Abgasemissionen, erreicht werden können. Zuständig dafür sind sogenannte Betriebsstrategien. In einem ersten Schritt gibt die vorliegende Diplomarbeit einen Überblick aktueller Betriebsstrategieansätze für Fahrzeuge mit einer parallelen Hybridarchitektur und stellt ausgewählte Beiträge wertend gegenüber. Anschließend wird mit der optimierungsbasierten Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) ein vielversprechender Ansatz in ein MATLAB/Simulink-Längsdynamikmodell umgesetzt. Die für diesen Ansatz maßgebliche Bestimmung des Äquivalenzfaktors erfolgt dabei ohne Verwendung von Prädiktionsdaten. Eine Gegenüberstellung der erzielten Kraftstoffverbrauchswerte zu denen einer regelbasierten Betriebsstrategie, zeigt die Vorteile des implementierten ECMS-Ansatzes. Um den unterschiedlichen Ladezuständen am Fahrtende gerecht zu werden, wird eine ladungsabhängige Kraftstoffkorrektur vorgestellt.:Abbildungsverzeichnis VII Tabellenverzeichnis IX Abkürzungs- und Symbolverzeichnis X 1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation 1.2 Zielstellung der Arbeit 1.3 Struktur der Arbeit 2 Energiemanagement paralleler Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.1 Hybridfahrzeuge 2.2 Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3 Betriebsstrategien für parallele Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3.1 Betriebsstrategie - Begriffsbestimmung und Einordnung in das Energiemanagement 2.3.2 Bewertungskriterien von Betriebsstrategien 2.3.3 Überblick Betriebsstrategien 3 Optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.1 Mathematischer Ansatz 3.1.1 Das parallele HEV als Anwendungsfall 3.1.2 Neben- und Randbedingungen 3.2 Globale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.2.1 Dynamische Programmierung (DP) 3.2.2 PONTRJAGINsches Maximumsprinzip (PMP) 3.2.3 Approximation der Kennfelder 3.2.4 Suchheuristiken 3.3 Lokale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.3.1 Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) 3.3.2 Gegenüberstellung ECMS und PMP 3.3.3 Bestimmung des Äquivalenzfaktors 3.4 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile optimierungsbasierter Ansätze 4 Regelbasierte Betriebsstrategien 4.1 Deterministisch 4.1.1 Regeladaption mittels Suchheuristiken 4.1.2 Regeldefinition mittels PMP/ECMS 4.2 Fuzzy-Logik 4.3 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile regelbasierter Ansätze 5 Auswahl eines zu implementierenden Strategieansatzes 6 Vorstellung des verwendeten Simulationsmodells 6.1 Betrachtete Fahrzyklen 6.2 Fahrzeugmodell 6.3 Implementierung der ECMS 6.3.1 Korrektur des Kraftstoffverbrauchs bei Ladungsabweichung 6.3.2 Auswahl der Strafkosten für den Gangwechsel und den VM- Betriebszustand 7 Simulation und Auswertung des implementierten Strategieansatzes. 7.1 Erweiterung der ECMS durch die nichtprädiktive Anpassung des Äquivalenzfaktors nach PEI 7.1.1 Auswahl des Skalierungsfaktors a - ohne Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref = const) 7.1.2 Auswahl der Proportionalverstärkung Kp - Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref ≠ const) 7.2 Vergleich der ECMS mit einer regelbasierten Betriebsstrategie 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Quellenverzeichnis Anhang / By integrating at least one additional energy converter into the drive train, parallel hybrid vehicles gain an additional degree of freedom compared to conventional vehicles. In addition to the design and efficiency of the individual drive train components, especially the use of this additional degree of freedom is the key responsible to achieve the desired goals in the operation of a hybrid vehicle, such as minimizing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. Responsible for this are so-called supervisory strategies. In a first step, the present thesis provides an overview of current supervisory control strategies for vehicles with a parallel hybrid architecture and compares selected approaches. In a second step, a promising Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is chosen and implemented in a MATLAB/Simulink-longitudinal dynamics model. This approach relates on the determination of the equivalence factor which is carried out without the use of prediction data. A comparison of the fuel consumption, obtained for a rule-based supervisory strategy, shows the advantages of the implemented ECMS approach. To consider the different states of charge at the end of the trip, a charge-dependent fuel correction will be presented.:Abbildungsverzeichnis VII Tabellenverzeichnis IX Abkürzungs- und Symbolverzeichnis X 1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation 1.2 Zielstellung der Arbeit 1.3 Struktur der Arbeit 2 Energiemanagement paralleler Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.1 Hybridfahrzeuge 2.2 Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3 Betriebsstrategien für parallele Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3.1 Betriebsstrategie - Begriffsbestimmung und Einordnung in das Energiemanagement 2.3.2 Bewertungskriterien von Betriebsstrategien 2.3.3 Überblick Betriebsstrategien 3 Optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.1 Mathematischer Ansatz 3.1.1 Das parallele HEV als Anwendungsfall 3.1.2 Neben- und Randbedingungen 3.2 Globale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.2.1 Dynamische Programmierung (DP) 3.2.2 PONTRJAGINsches Maximumsprinzip (PMP) 3.2.3 Approximation der Kennfelder 3.2.4 Suchheuristiken 3.3 Lokale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.3.1 Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) 3.3.2 Gegenüberstellung ECMS und PMP 3.3.3 Bestimmung des Äquivalenzfaktors 3.4 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile optimierungsbasierter Ansätze 4 Regelbasierte Betriebsstrategien 4.1 Deterministisch 4.1.1 Regeladaption mittels Suchheuristiken 4.1.2 Regeldefinition mittels PMP/ECMS 4.2 Fuzzy-Logik 4.3 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile regelbasierter Ansätze 5 Auswahl eines zu implementierenden Strategieansatzes 6 Vorstellung des verwendeten Simulationsmodells 6.1 Betrachtete Fahrzyklen 6.2 Fahrzeugmodell 6.3 Implementierung der ECMS 6.3.1 Korrektur des Kraftstoffverbrauchs bei Ladungsabweichung 6.3.2 Auswahl der Strafkosten für den Gangwechsel und den VM- Betriebszustand 7 Simulation und Auswertung des implementierten Strategieansatzes. 7.1 Erweiterung der ECMS durch die nichtprädiktive Anpassung des Äquivalenzfaktors nach PEI 7.1.1 Auswahl des Skalierungsfaktors a - ohne Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref = const) 7.1.2 Auswahl der Proportionalverstärkung Kp - Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref ≠ const) 7.2 Vergleich der ECMS mit einer regelbasierten Betriebsstrategie 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Quellenverzeichnis Anhang

An emerging technology is the hybridization of wheel loaders. Since wheel loaders commonly operate in repetitive cycles it should be possible to use this information to develop an efficient energy management strategy that decreases fuel consumption. The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate if and how this can be done in a real-time online application. The strategy that is developed is based on pattern recognition and Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS), which together is called Adaptive ECMS (A-ECMS). Pattern recognition uses information about the repetitive cycles and predicts the operating cycle, which can be done with Neural Network or Rule-Based methods. The prediction is then used in ECMS to compute the optimal power distribution of fuel and battery power. For a robust system it is important with stability implementations in ECMS to protect the machine, which can be done by adjusting the cost function that is minimized. The result from these implementations in a quasistatic simulation environment is an improvement in fuel consumption by 7.59 % compared to not utilizing the battery at all.

This thesis presents two transient models for a prototype integrated charger for use in a plug-in hybrid-electrical vehicle application. The models can be useful in order to develop control algorithms for the system or to recommend improvements to the machine design. A flux map based method, obtaining input data from simulations using the finite element method (FEM) is used to model the grid synchronization process. The grid side voltage can then be predicted by incorporating spatial flux linkage harmonics. The model is implemented in Matlab/Simulink and compared to stand alone FEM simulations with good agreement. The charging process is modeled using an inductance based model also requiring FEM simulations as input data. Since the flux linkages in the grid and inverter side windings are dependent on each other, the presented transient model is linearized around a specific operating point. This model is also implemented in a Matlab/Simulink environment. Sensorless control of a PMSynRel drive is also studied in this thesis. Focus is put on operating limits due to magnetic saturation when operating at low speeds. The rotating and pulsating voltage vector injection methods for sensorless control are studied in detail. A technique to map the feasible sensorless control region is proposed which utilizes the resulting position error signal rather than data of differential inductances. This technique is implemented experimentally and compared to corresponding FEM simulations with good agreement. The impact of spatial inductance harmonics on the quality of the position estimates is also studied. A method to predict the maximum position estimation error due to the inductance harmonics is proposed based on simplified analytical models. A technique is presented and experimentally verified which can compensate for this effect by injecting a modified rotating voltage carrier. Lastly, the impact of saturation in the rotor structure on the initial magnet polarity detection is investigated. The experimental results, in good agreement with the corresponding FEM simulations, indicate that the impact of saturation in the magnet bridges of rotor is the dominant phenomenon at lower peak current magnitudes. / QC 20110928

QC 20111214

Des technologies avancées sont très demandées dans l'industrie automobile pour respecter les réglementations de consommation de carburant de plus en plus rigoureuses. La co-optimisation du dimensionnement et du contrôle des groupes motopropulseurs avec une efficacité de calcul améliorée est étudiée dans cette thèse.Les composants des groupes motopropulseurs, tels que le moteur, la batterie et le moteur électrique, sont modélisés analytiquement au niveau descriptif et prédictif afin de permettre une optimisation du contrôle rapide et une optimisation du dimensionnement scalable. La consommation d'énergie minimale des véhicules hybrides-électriques est évaluée par des nouvelles méthodes optimales. Ces méthodes – y compris Selective Hamiltonian Minimization et GRaphical-Analysis-Based energy Consumption Optimization – permettent d'évaluer une consommation minimale d'énergie avec une efficacité de calcul améliorée. De plus, la méthode de Fully-Analytic energy Consumption Evaluation (FACE) approxime la consommation d'énergie minimale sous forme analytique en fonction des caractéristiques de la mission et des paramètres de conception des composants du groupe motopropulseur. Plusieurs cas d’études sont présentées en détail par rapport aux approches de co-optimisation à bi-niveaux et à uni-niveau, ce qui montre une réduction efficace du temps de calcul requis par le processus global de co-optimisation. / Advanced technologies are highly demanded in automotive industry to meet the more and more stringent regulations of fuel consumption. Cooptimization of design and control for vehicle propulsion systems with an enhanced computational efficiency is investigated in this thesis.Powertrain components, such as internal combustion engines, batteries, and electric motor/generators, are analytically modeled at descriptive and predictive level correspondingly for the development of fastrunning control optimization and for the scalability of design optimization. The minimal fuel consumption of a hybrid-electric vehicle is evaluated through novel optimization methods. These methods – including the Selective Hamiltonian Minimization, and the GRaphical-Analysis-Based energy Consumption Optimization – are able to evaluate the minimal energy consumption with the enhanced computational efficiency. In addition, the Fully-Analytic energy Consumption Evaluation method approximates the minimal energy consumption in closed form as a function of the mission characteristics and the design parameters of powertrain components.A few case studies are presented in details via the bi-level and uni-level co-optimization approaches, showing an effective improvement in the computational efficiency for the overall co-optimization process.

No description available.

Energy management systems (EMSs), implemented in the electronic control unit (ECU) of an actual vehicle with electri ed powertrain, is a much simpler version of the theoretically developed EMS. Such simpli cation is done to accommodate the EMS within the given memory constraint and computational capacity of the ECU. The simpli cation should ensure reasonable performance compared to theoretical EMS under real-life driving scenarios. The process of simpli cation must be effective to create a versatile and utilitarian EMS. The reinforcement learning-based controllers feature pro table characteristics in optimizing the performance of controllable physical systems as they do not mandatorily require a mathematical model of system dynamics (i.e. they are model-free). Quite naturally, it can aspired to testify such prowess of reinforcement learning-based controllers in achieving near-global optimal performance for energy management system (supervisory) of electri ed powertrains. Before deployment of any supervisory controller as a mainstream controller, they should be essentially scrutinized through various levels of virtual simulation platforms with an ascending order of physical system emulating-capability. The controller evolves from a mathematical concept to an utilitarian embedded system through a series of these levels where it undergoes gradual transformation to finally become apposite for a real physical system. Implementation of the control strategy in a Simulink-based forward simulation model could be the first stage of the aforementioned evolution process. This brief will delineate all the steps required for implementing an reinforcement learning-based supervisory controller in a forward simulation model of a hybrid electric vehicle. A novel framework of loss-minimization based instantaneous optimal strategy is introduced for the energy management system of a multi-mode hybrid electric powertrain in this brief. The loss-minimization strategy is flexible enough to be implemented in any architecture of electrified powertrains. It is mathematically proven that the overall system loss minimization is equivalent to the minimization of fuel consumption. An online simulation framework is developed in this article to evaluate the performance of a multi-mode electrified powertrain equipped with more than one power source. An electrically variable transmission with two planetary gear-set has been chosen as the centerpiece of the powertrain considering the versatility and future prospects of such transmissions. It is noteworthy to mention that a novel architecture topology selected for this dissertation is engendered through a series of rigorous screening process whose workflow is presented here with brevity. One of the legitimate concern of multi-mode transmission is it's proclivity to contribute discontinuity of power-flow in the downstream of the powertrain. Mode-shift events can be predominantly held responsible for engendering such discontinuity. Advent of dynamic coordinated control as a technique for ameliorating such discontinuity has been substantiated by many scholars in literature. Hence, a system-level coordinated control is employed within the energy management system which governs the mode schedule of the multi-mode powertrain in real-time simulation. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The introduction of hybrid powertrains has made it possible to utilise unconventional engines as primary power units in vehicles. The free-piston energy converter (FPEC) is such an engine. It is a combination of a free-piston combustion engine and a linear electrical machine. The main features of this configuration are high efficiency and a rapid transient response. In this thesis the free-piston energy converter as part of a hybrid powertrain is studied. One issue of the FPEC is the generation of pulsating power due to the reciprocating motion of the translator. These pulsations affect the components in the powertrain. However, it is shown that these pulsations can be handled by a normal sized DC-link capacitor bank. In addition, two approaches to reduce these pulsations are suggested: the first approach is using generator force control and the second approach is based on phase-shifted operation of two FPEC units. The latter approach results in higher frequency and lower amplitude of the pulsations, which reduce the capacitor losses. The FPEC start-up requirements are analysed and by choosing the correct amplitude of the generator force during start-up the energy consumption can be minimised. The performance gain of utilising the FPEC in a medium sized series hybrid electric vehicle (SHEV) is also studied. An FPEC model suitable for vehicle simulation is developed and a series hybrid powertrain, with the same performance as the Toyota Prius, is dimensioned and modelled. Optimisation is utilised to find a lower limit on the SHEV's fuel consumption for a given drivecycle. In addition, three power management control strategies for the FPEC system are investigated: two load-following strategies using one and two FPEC units respectively and one strategy based on the ideas of an equivalent consumption minimisation (ECM) proposed earlier in the literature. The results show a significant decrease in fuel consumption, compared to a diesel-generator powered SHEV, just by replacing the diesel-generator with an FPEC. This result is improved even more by using two FPEC units to generate the propulsion power, as this increases the efficiency at low loads. The ECM control strategy does not reduce the fuel consumption compared to the load-following strategies but gives a better utilisation of the available power sources. / QC 20101116

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The harvested energy of wind can be transferred to the generators either through a gearbox or through an intermediate medium such as hydraulic fluids. In this method, high-pressure hydraulic fluids are utilized to collect the energy of single or multiple wind turbines and transfer it to a central generation unit. In this unit, the mechanical energy of the hydraulic fluid is transformed into electric energy. The prime mover of hydraulic energy transfer unit, the wind turbine, experiences the intermittent characteristics of wind. This energy variation imposes fluctuations on generator outputs and drifts their angular velocity from desired frequencies. Nonlinearities exist in hydraulic wind power transfer and are originated from discrete elements such as check valves, proportional and directional valves, and leakage factors of hydraulic pumps and motors. A thorough understanding of hydraulic wind energy transfer system requires mathematical expression of the system. This can also be used to analyze, design, and predict the behavior of large-scale hydraulic-interconnected wind power plants. This thesis introduces the mathematical modeling and controls of the hydraulic wind energy transfer system. The obtained models of hydraulic energy transfer system are experimentally validated with the results from a prototype. This research is classified into three categories. 1) A complete mathematical model of the hydraulic energy transfer system is illustrated in both ordinary differential equations and state-space representation. 2) An experimental prototype of the energy transfer system is built and used to study the behavior of the system in different operating configurations, and 3) Controllers are designed to address the problems associated with the wind speed fluctuation and reference angular velocity tracking. The mathematical models of hydraulic energy transfer system are also validated with the simulation results from a SimHydraulics Toolbox of MATLAB/Simulink®. The models are also compared with the experimental data from the system prototype. The models provided in this thesis do consider the improved assessment of the hydraulic system operation and efficiency analysis for industrial level wind power application.