A superimitação é definida como uma tendência à cópia de todas as ações executadas por um modelo, mesmo as claramente irrelevantes. Os mecanismos motivacionais e a funcionalidade da superimitação ainda são pouco compreendidos, mas um possível sentido adaptativo estaria associado à opacidade causal de boa parte dos comportamentos socialmente aprendidos. Este fenômeno tem sido amplamente replicado em vários contextos e observado no comportamento de crianças de diversas faixas etárias e até mesmo de adultos. Apesar de sua aparente robustez, estudos têm relatado que a superimitação é sensível a algumas características do modelo. Estas evidências são compatíveis com a previsão de modelos teóricos de coevolução genes-cultura de que a aprendizagem social humana é influenciada por um conjunto de vieses cognitivos que permitem que a aquisição de informações ocorra de maneira seletiva, desfavorecendo a aprendizagem de comportamentos maladaptativos que podem estar disponíveis no contexto social. Este trabalho teve como objetivo investigar o efeito de informações relacionadas à competência ou incompetência de um modelo adulto sobre a fidelidade da cópia de ações relevantes e irrelevantes observadas por crianças de 5 anos de idade em uma tarefa. Foram testadas as influências de informações declaradas pelo próprio modelo e também por terceiros em uma conversa sobre o modelo. Adicionalmente, foram investigadas diferenças entre os sexos dos participantes quanto à fidelidade da cópia. Os resultados indicam um efeito fraco dos vieses de \"competência autodeclarada\" e de \"prestígio\" do modelo sobre a superimitação. Outras informações, potencialmente mais confiáveis (não manipuladas neste estudo), podem ter sido utilizadas pelas crianças para atribuição de competência ao modelo / Overimitation is defined by a tendency of copying all actions executed by a model, even the clearly irrelevants. The motivational mechanisms and functionality of overimitation still aren\'t well understood, but its possible adaptive meaning would be related to causal opacity of a great part of the socially learned behaviors. This phenomenon has been widely replicated in several contexts and observed in behavior of children of different ages and even in adults. Despite the seeming robustness of overimitation, studies showed that it is sensitive to some characteristics of the model. These evidences are consistent with the prediction of theoretical models of gene-culture coevolution that human social learning is affected by a set of cognitive biases that allow a selective acquisition of information, disadvantaging the learning of maladaptive behaviors that can be socially available. Our work intended to investigate the effect of information about the competence or incompetence of an adult model on the copy fidelity of relevant and irrelevant actions by five-year-old children in a task. We tested the influence of self-declared information about the model and also the same kind of information given by third-parties in a conversation about the model. We also investigate sex differences in copy fidelity. Our results reveal a weak effect of \"self-declared competence\" or \"prestige\" model-based biases on overimitation. Other information, potentially more reliable but not manipulated by us, could be used by the children to assign competence to the model

The purpose of this qualitative ethnographic study was to explore citizen perceptions of the phenomenon of law enforcement shootings involving an imitation firearm. A secondary purpose was to document knowledge of current imitation firearm policies and thoughts on the effectiveness of said policies. Kingdon's multiple streams approach was used as the theoretical framework. This theory addressed the sources of power that influence policy decisions, the stakeholders involved in agenda setting, and factors that shape policy debates. Data were collected using a combination of secondary data analysis, field observations and semi structured, face-to-face interviews with 23 citizens. Sampling strategies included a combination of snowball, purposeful, and variation sampling to identify interviewees from four specific subject groups: law enforcement, parents of children aged 10-17-years-old, citizens with no law enforcement experience and no children aged 10-17-years-old, and leaders in the community. Results from domain and taxonomic coding revealed the themes of safety, responsibility, and accountability. Specifically, subjects wanted to ensure both law enforcement and citizens were safe in the community, they wanted to see parents take responsibility for their children, and they wanted to see legislation that held people accountable for their actions when using imitation firearms during the commission of a crime. Findings may be used for positive social change by enhancing imitation firearm policies, recognizing ways to improve data tracking, and identifying educational opportunities for both citizens and law enforcement. Enhanced firearm policies can also help mitigate unnecessary shootings and reduce community conflicts between citizens and police.

La question de la réécriture du théâtre au XVIIIe siècle implique tout d’abord une réflexion sur le statut de l’œuvre littéraire à une époque où les droits d’auteur au sens où nous l’entendons aujourd’hui n’étaient pas reconnus et où le respect scrupuleux de la lettre des textes publiés n’était pas une obligation. Les auteurs postclassiques construisent en effet leur esthétique dramaturgique d’après la dramaturgie des auteurs de l’époque de Louis XIV. Ce processus relève principalement de leur ambition d’atteindre la réputation de Molière, de Racine et de Corneille. Une situation identique se produit aussi chez les auteurs des suites théâtrales du Mariage de Figaro de Beaumarchais. Par toutes ces caractéristiques, le théâtre du XVIIIe siècle représente sans doute une prolongation du théâtre du siècle précédent. Néanmoins, les éléments novateurs se profilent à travers les pièces des auteurs de l’époque. Ces éléments contribuent en même temps à la prise de distance avec la dramaturgie classique qui (la prise de distance) se développera progressivement. Par exemple, les successeurs de Molière, avec Marivaux au premier rang, semblent amplement influencés par la dramaturgie de l’auteur du Tartuffe et du Misanthrope. Cependant, pour ces dramaturges, le théâtre de Molière ne fut qu’un modèle permettant la constitution de leur propre esthétique théâtrale. Presque chaque auteur comique du XVIII siècle apporte une dimension novatrice personnelle et originale. Cette étude devrait donc permettre d’établir une typologie des réécritures théâtrales au XVIIIe siècle. / The problem of theatrical rewritings in the 18th century, i.e. the imitations of the great classics is primarily related to the thought of a literary work status in the period in which the authorship rights (in the form known nowadays) were not founded. Namely, in the 18th century there was no obligation as to the respect of author’s rights to any published work. Postclassical authors modelled their dramaturgical aesthetics after the dramaturgy of the authors of the time of Louis XIV. This process is mainly due to their ambition to rival the reputation of Molière, Racine and Corneille. An identical situation also occurs among the authors of the theatrical sequels of the Marriage of Figaro by Beaumarchais. By ail these characteristics, the theater of the eighteenth century probably represents an extension of the theater of the previous century. Nevertheless, the innovative elements are profile in the plays of the authors of the time. At the same time these elements contribute to the detachment from classical dramaturgy which (detachment) will develop gradually. For example, Molières successors, with Marivaux in the forefront, seem to be heavily influenced by the dramaturgy of the author of Tartuffe and Misanthrope. However, for these playwrights, the theater of Molière was only a model allowing the constitution of their own theatrical aesthetics. Almost every comedy playwright of the eighteenth century introduces a personal and original innovative dimension. This study should therefore make it possible to establish a typology of theatrical rewritings in the 18th century.

Perceptual speech and voice analysis is an essential skill for all speech-language pathologists, but it is a difficult skill to teach. Even the reliability for experienced experts is variable. Some training literature and practices in speech-language pathology suggest that imitating pathological voices may be useful for developing perceptual judgment. Evidence from other fields suggests that motor experience influences perception. Until now the link between production and perception of voice quality has not been addressed. The purpose of this pilot study is to test the hypothesis that imitating pathological voice samples would improve the perceptual discrimination abilities of naïve, inexperienced listeners. Three expert listeners rated 25 voice samples using a perceptual voice evaluation scale, the Grade, Instability, Roughness, Breathiness, Asthenia, Strain Scale (GIRBAS) (Dejonckere et al., 1996), and identified anchor samples for the training protocol. These expert ratings were used to develop summary expert ratings that served as a comparison for the naïve listener ratings. Two groups of naïve undergraduate listeners received training in evaluating voice quality and in administering the GIRBAS. They completed a pretest, a training session, a homework session, and a post-test. During each activity, they rated 6 voices and provided a confidence rating for their scores. The experimental group imitated the voice samples during the study, and the control group completed the training without supplemental motor experience. It was hypothesized that both listener groups would have improved accuracy and confidence levels between the pretest and post-test, with a larger improvement for the experimental group. Data suggested that training improved naïve listener accuracy and confidence levels and that this improvement was maintained for at least seven days after the initial training. Post-test accuracy for both groups was approximately the same. Imitation did not improve the accuracy of ratings, although those subjects had higher confidence levels. The data supported previous research that found that training improved the accuracy of perceptual voice evaluations. However, the hypothesis that imitation could improve perceptual ratings was not supported by this study and bears further investigation due to the small sample size.

Research has shown that video modelling can improve social behaviours in children with ASD. In addition, research in behaviour modelling training from the field of organisational psychology has shown that using a mix of positive and negative exemplars can assist in acquisition and generalisation of a skill. The current study compared the use of one negative and one positive exemplar, with the use of two positive exemplars to determine which combination would result in faster acquisition and/or superior generalisation of a skill. No other studies have examined this with children diagnosed with ASD. Seven children, aged between 5 and 15 years, and diagnosed with ASD participated in a multiple baseline design across children; within child across two modelling conditions; and within each modelling condition across two tasks. In one condition, a participant watched a video containing one exemplar of a model (same sex and of similar age but with normal development) perform a task the wrong way, and one exemplar of the same model perform the same task the right way (wrong/right). In another condition, the participant watched a video containing two different exemplars of the model perform a matched task the right way (right/right). During the intervention, 1 participant refused to watch the videos. For 13 of the 16 tasks, where training was completed, participants either reached criterion or made some gains in acquisition of the social skills. However, for seven of the tasks criterion was not reached. Generally, neither modelling condition was superior in acquisition or generalisation of the targeted social skills. Confounds occurring during the course of the study may have contributed to the equivocal results. For some children with ASD, video modelling in combination with the delivery of preferred reinforcers may be required for successful skill acquisition. Further implications, particularly the potential negative effects of vicarious reinforcement when an observer does not gain reinforcement for imitation are discussed, as are recommendations for future research.

<p>Background: Many authors consider knowledge to be a significant source for competitive advantage. Replicating companies found their competitiveness on an ability to leverage its knowledge base by replicating its business model in new contexts, a process often referred to as the McDonalds approach. Several authors emphasize that an efficient method for knowledge transfer may increase the risk for imitation. </p><p>Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine in an explorative manner how strategies for replicating complex knowledge systems are employed and developed. Furthermore, our ambition is to explore the notion of replication strategy. </p><p>Research method: The study was initiated by a literature study, creating a theoretical conception of replication. This was followed by an empirical study based on interviews with seven companies in diverse industries, following the explorative nature of the study. The companies studied are Indiska, Sandys, 7- Eleven, Arkitektkopia, First Hotels, Ernst&Young and KPMG. </p><p>Result: The study has generated a model for analyzing replication of complex knowledge systems. Replication is conceived as the integration of generic capabilities, which are managed by what the authors refer to as integration tools, tools that are based on organizational knowledge. This viewpoint contributes to perception of replicating companies as one knowledge system. The study indicates that methods for knowledge transfer has limited effect on the risk for imitation, instead factors such as the complexity of the business and its ability to continuously develop are of greater importance. Replication strategies can be viewed from a lifecycle perspective, where the balance between exploration and exploitation varies over time. It has been suggested that replication can be viewed upon as an expansion strategy aiming to create a critical mass.</p>

This thesis consists of five papers, presented as separate chapters within three parts: Industrial Organization, Evolutionary Game Theory and Game Theory. The common basis of these parts is research in the field of game theory and more specifically, equilibrium selection in different frameworks. The first part, Industrial Organization, consists of one paper co-authored with Prajit Dutta and Jörgen Weibull. Forward-looking consumers are analysed in a Bertrand framework. It is assumed that if firms can anticipate a price war and act accordingly, so can consumers. The second part, Evolutionary Game Theory, contains three chapters. All models in these papers are based on Young’s (1993, 1998) approach. In Chapter 2, the Saez Marti and Weibull’s (1999) model is generalized from the Nash Demand Game to generic two-player games. In Chapter 3, co-authored with Jens Josephson, a special set of stochastically stable states is introduced, minimal construction, which is the long-run prediction under imitation behavior in normal form games. In Chapter 4, best reply and imitation rules are considered on extensive form games with perfect information. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk., 2001

Background: Many authors consider knowledge to be a significant source for competitive advantage. Replicating companies found their competitiveness on an ability to leverage its knowledge base by replicating its business model in new contexts, a process often referred to as the McDonalds approach. Several authors emphasize that an efficient method for knowledge transfer may increase the risk for imitation. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine in an explorative manner how strategies for replicating complex knowledge systems are employed and developed. Furthermore, our ambition is to explore the notion of replication strategy. Research method: The study was initiated by a literature study, creating a theoretical conception of replication. This was followed by an empirical study based on interviews with seven companies in diverse industries, following the explorative nature of the study. The companies studied are Indiska, Sandys, 7- Eleven, Arkitektkopia, First Hotels, Ernst&amp;Young and KPMG. Result: The study has generated a model for analyzing replication of complex knowledge systems. Replication is conceived as the integration of generic capabilities, which are managed by what the authors refer to as integration tools, tools that are based on organizational knowledge. This viewpoint contributes to perception of replicating companies as one knowledge system. The study indicates that methods for knowledge transfer has limited effect on the risk for imitation, instead factors such as the complexity of the business and its ability to continuously develop are of greater importance. Replication strategies can be viewed from a lifecycle perspective, where the balance between exploration and exploitation varies over time. It has been suggested that replication can be viewed upon as an expansion strategy aiming to create a critical mass.

In this thesis, a new approach is developed, avoiding the correspondence problem caused by the difference in embodiment between imitator and demonstrator in imitation learning. In our work, the imitator is a fluidic system of dynamics totally different than the imitatee, which is a human performing hand gestures and human body postures. The fluidic system is composed of fluid particles, which are used for the discretization of the problem domain. In this work, we demonstrate the fluidics formation control so as to imitate by observation initially given human body poses and hand gestures. Our fluidic formation control is based on setting suitable parameters of Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), which is a particle based Lagrangian method, according to imitation learning. In the controller part, we developed three approaches: In the first one, we used Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) for training of the input-output pairs on the fluidic imitation system. We extracted shape based feature vectors for human hand gestures as inputs of the system and for output we took the fluid dynamics parameters. In the second approach, we employed the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method for human hand gesture and human body pose classification and imitation. Lastly, we developed a region based controller which assigns the fluid parameters according to the human body poses and hand gestures. In this controller, our algorithm determines the best fitting ellipses on human body regions and human hand finger positions and maps ellipse parameters to the fluid parameters. The fluid parameters adjusted by the fluidics imitation controller are body force (f), density, stiffness coefficient and velocity of particles (V) so as to lead formations of fluidic swarms to human body poses and hand gestures.

My thesis aims to show that Wittgensteins view of rule-following involves a misleading picture of the rule. Since he saw the rule as something fundamentally independent of the rule-follower and something with which the rule-follower must comply, he inevitably became entangled in the paradox of compliance: that is, the idea that there must be something other than the rule-follower for rule-following to exist, even though he knew that there was really nothing there to guide the rule-follower or to measure his action. This paradox, dimly expressed within key Wittgensteinian problems relating to how one is able to follow a rule and whether one can follow a rule privately, eventually gave rise to the question over the social nature of rules. In that debate, Wittgensteins commentators vigorously argued, and continue to argue, whether the concept of rule-following presupposes a community of practitioners or not. I argue that this debate itself is misguided, since both sides in this debate take as their starting point a picture of compliance which sees rule and rule-follower as essentially different. In contrast to a compliant picture, I offer a different picture of the rule, which I will call the pliant picture of the rule. I will show that rule and rule-follower are fundamentally the same, and are related to one another, not socially or grammatically, but genealogically. This relationship of identity is in fact exhibited in the relationship between teacher and pupil, when the pupil becomes what his teacher already is through following his teacher. Although compliance can be said to define this relationship initially, it ends with the pupil learning, or becoming, the rule. To conceive of the rule in this way is to avoid the paradox of compliance; that is, it is to go beyond Wittgensteins picture of a paradox.