Foram desenvolvidos e manufaturados compósitos porosos com estrutura de gradiente funcional em Poli (metacrilato de metila) (PMMA) e Hidroxiapatita (HAp) aplicáveis como implantes ósseos. O PMMA é largamente utilizável e aceito como material de implante tem boas propriedades mecânicas, baixo custo, fácil manufatura, porém é considerado bioinerte. A HAp é uma cerâmica comprovadamente bioativa, porém de baixas propriedades mecânicas, alto custo e de difícil manufatura. O PMMA com estrutura funcional e HAp apresentou valores próximos a 50 MPa, mas com potencial de melhoria. O objetivo deste desenvolvimento é produzir um implante com a sua superfície porosa e bioativa, para que este possa ser osteointegrado em um tempo menor ao tecido hospedeiro, melhorando a relação: material implantado/leito receptor. O conceito é baseado em uma estrutura de núcleo denso em PMMA e camada superficial porosa com superfície bioativa. A camada de PMMA porosa foi desenvolvida utilizando-se o carboximetilcelulose (CMC) como agente porogênico e HAp como agente bioativador da matriz polimérica. Foram elaboradas análises de bicompatibilidade, resistência mecânica, macro e microestrutura. Para testar a biocompatibilidade foram realizados inicialmente testes in vitro com cultura de células VERO, visando investigar a toxicidade dos materiais constituintes, a influência do novo biomaterial em atividades celulares e o comportamento destes em condições próximas daquelas a serem encontradas no ambiente de implantação. Em seguida, os testes in vivo realizados em coelhos averiguaram a interação tecido-material (bioatividade), a biocompatibilidade do material, e a potencialidade do uso do material em aplicação à superfícies (osteointegração). Foi realizada análise histológica dos tecidos explantados, onde os resultados basearam-se na análise da morfologia geral dos componentes teciduais encontrados junto ao implante. A caracterização da superfície foi realizada por testes de rugosidade, por microscopia ótica e eletrônica de varredura. Foram realizados ensaios mecânicos de compressão para analisar a resistência mecânica do biomaterial. Os resultados in vitro mostraram que os materiais utilizados não apresentaram qualquer indício de toxicidade. Através das imagens realizadas em MEV (Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura) pode se observar o crescimento de células VERO na superfície do material e em direção aos poros da matriz. A análise macroestrutural dos poros também obtida por MEV demonstrou em uma caracterização inicial do material que este apresentou características biomiméticas como poros em formato oblongo e interconectados. A média obtida do tamanho dos poros foi de aproximadamente 250 \'mü\'m. Os resultados dos ensaios mecânicos de compressão mostraram que o PMMA denso é o que mais se aproximou do tecido ósseo cortical com 101 MPa. Por fim, os resultados histológicos apontam para a biocompatibilidade do compósito, tornando-o assim aplicável como camada superficial de implantes. / Were developed and manufactured porous composite with functional gradient structure in Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and hydroxyapatite (HAp) applicable as bone implants. PMMA is widely used and accepted as implant material, has good mechanical properties, low cost, easy manufacturing and considered a bioinert biomaterial, the Hap is a demonstrably bioactive ceramic with poor mechanical properties, high cost and difficult to manufacture. The PMMA functional structure and HAp had values close to 50 MPa, but with potential for improvement. The objective of this development was produced an implant with a porous surface and bioactive to be osteointegrated in a less time, improving the relationship: implanted material/receiver bed. The concept is based on a dense structure core of PMMA and a porous bioactive surface layer. The porous PMMA was developed using the carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) as a porogenic agent and hap to bioactive the PMMA matrix. Biocompatibility tests, mechanical strength tests and macro and microstructure analisys were carried out. To evaluated the biocompatibility of this material were made primarily in vitro tests, the VERO cells were used in vitro analysis aimed investigate the toxicity of the constituent materials, the influence of the new biomaterial in cellular activities and behavior in these conditions close to those to be found in the environment of deployment. Then, in vivo tests conducted in rabbits evaluated the interaction with tissue-material (bioactivity), the biocompatibility of the material, and the potential use of the material in the application areas (osseointegration). Were performed histological analysis of tissues, where the results were based on the analysis of the general morphology of the tissue components found near the implant. The surface characterization was performed by roughness tests, optical microscopy and SEM. Mechanical tests were conducted to examine the compressive strength of biomaterial. Results in vitro showed that the materials did not present any evidence of toxicity. The samples were analyzed by SEM where the growth of cells can be observed in the surface of the material and towards to the pores. The macrostructural analysis also obtained by SEM showed in an initial characterization of the material that presented bone biomimetics characteristics with oblong pores with interconnected. The average pore size obtained was approximately 250 \'mü\'m. The results of mechanical tests showed that the compression of PMMA is the densest approached the cortical bone tissue near 101 MPa. Finally, the histological results point to the biocompatibility of the composite, thus making it applicable to the surface layers of implants.

O objetivo foi determinar se aldosterona e corticosterona agem sobre a acidificação do túbulo proximal e se esses efeitos são genômicos e/ou não-genômicos. A reabsorção de HCO3- foi avaliada por microperfusão estacionária. Aldosterona e corticosterona perfundidas na luz tubular causaram aumento significante do JHCO3-. Na presença de etanol, actinomicina D, cicloheximida ou espironolactona, o JHCO3- foi estatisticamente igual ao valor controle (2,84 ± 0,079 nmol.cm-2.s-1). RU486 sozinho inibiu o efeito estimulador da aldosterona e corticosterona. Losartan não alterou o JHCO3-. Concanomicina ou S3226 diminuiram o efeito estimulador da corticosterona. A aldosterona perfundida nos capilares peritubulares aumentou o JHCO3-. Assim, a aldosterona e corticosterona tem um efeito rápido, não-genômico, estimulante do JHCO3-, provavelmente com a participação do GR e pela ativação do NH3 e da H+-ATPase luminais. Além disto, a aldosterona e corticosterona endógenas estimulam o JHCO3- no túbulo proximal. / The purpose was to determine if aldosterone and corticosterone act on the acidification of proximal tubule and if these hormonal effects are genomic and/or nongenomic. Bicarbonate reabsorption was evaluated by microperfusion. Aldosterone and corticosterone caused a significant increase in JHCO3-. In the presence of ethanol, actinomycin D, cycloheximide or espironolactone, the JHCO3- was not different from the control value (2.84 ± 0.079 nmol.cm-2.s-1). However, in the presence of RU486 a decrease on JHCO3- was observed. Losartan inhibited the JHCO3-. Concanamicyn or S3226 decreased the stimulatory effect of corticosterone. Aldosterone perfused into peritubular capillaries also increased JHCO3-. Our results indicate that: aldosterone and corticosterone has a rapid, nongenomic, stimulatory effect on JHCO3-; probably, GR participates in this process and; this effect, probably, occurs by activation of luminal NH3 and H+-ATPase. Besides, endogenous aldosterone and corticosterone stimulate JHCO3-.

La maladie de Parkinson est la seconde maladie neuro-dégénérative la plus fréquente à travers le monde. Dans ce contexte, le projet de recherche associé à cette thèse vise à améliorer le traitement symptomatique de la maladie de Parkinson, par le développement de procédés de stimulation cérébrale profonde adaptative. Le travail de cette thèse repose sur la conception d’un ASIC d’enregistrement et de traitement de signaux neuronaux, répondant à divers enjeux :un traitement continu et en temps réel focalisé sur des bandes spécifiques très basses-fréquences et largement configurables. L’objectif est d’utiliser l’information traitée pour le contrôle et la génération d’un signal de stimulation. Cet ASIC a été développé, caractérisé électroniquement et utilisé dans un contexte in vivo. Un système en boucle fermée a été réalisé à partir de cet ASIC, se montrant fonctionnel. Ces validations expérimentales in vivo ouvrent de nombreuses possibilités d’investigation du concept de stimulation cérébrale en boucle fermée. / Parkinson’s disease is the second most common neurodegenerative diseases throughout theworld. In this context, the research project associated with this thesis is to improve the symptomatictreatment of Parkinson’s disease through the development process of deep brain stimulationadaptive. The work of this thesis is based on the design of an ASIC for recording andprocessing of neural signals, in response to a variety of issues : ongoing treatment and real-timefocus on specific bands of very low-frequency and highly configurable. The goal is to use theprocessed information to the control and generation of a stimulation signal. This ASIC wasdeveloped, characterized and used electronically in a context in vivo. A closed-loop system wasmade from the ASIC, showing functional. These in vivo validations open up many possibilitiesfor investigation of the concept of closed-loop brain stimulation.

A Esquistossomose é uma das mais importantes doenças endêmicas do mundo, com mais de 200 milhões de pessoas infectadas em 76 países. É estimado que mais de 600 milhões de pessoas estejam em áreas endêmicas. Em 2003 dados do transcriptoma do Schistosoma mansoni foram disponibilizados. As informações de proteínas codificadas permitiram a análise de suas funções, e auxiliaram na procura de novos candidatos vacinais. A análise do transcriptoma permitiu a identificação de três famílias de proteínas homólogas à dineína de cadeia leve (DLC) de mamíferos. Uma delas é a família L8, com ao menos 18 membros, com proteínas em torno de 10 kDa. Essas proteínas são expressas em diferentes estágios do ciclo de vida do Schistosoma mansoni. Duas DLCs foram reconhecidas no tegumento de S. japonicum, sugerindo que elas são expostas ao sistema imune do hospedeiro. Salmonelas atenuadas como vacinas vivas têm sido descritas como bons veículos para apresentação de antígenos heterólogos. No nosso laboratório uma importante ferramenta tem sido desenvolvida para auxiliar o uso de salmonelas como vacinas vivas recombinantes, foi desenvolvido um vetor plasmididal baseado no regulon soxRS para controlar a expressão de genes heterólogos in vivo. Este sistema de expressão promove a expressão de proteínas recombinantes sob condições de estresse oxidativo, como aquele imposto ao microorganismo dentro do macrófago. Para investigar o potencial vacinal das DLCs, três genes foram selecionados para serem clonados e expressos em E. coli e em salmonelas atenuadas. A antigenicidade e imunogenicidade desses parálogos foram testadas em camundongos depois de serem imunizados com proteínas purificadas ou com salmonelas recombinantes. As DLCs mostraram ser bastante imunogênicas, aumentando os título de IgG. A proteína DLC1 também aumentou os níveis de IgE no soro dos animais, fato que poderia estar relacionado com reações alérgicas observadas em populações infetadas. Altos níveis de IgE também podem ser relacionados com uma marca de resistência existente em pessoas que vivem em áreas endêmicas. Depois de imunizados os animais foram desafiados com cercárias para investigar possível proteção. Foi observado que a imunização com proteínas purificadas resultou em aproximadamente 40% de diminuição da carga parasitária. A análise dos granulomas hepáticos com 45 dias depois da infecção indicou uma significativa redução, maior que 70% das áreas dos granulomas, sgerindo que a imunização com as DLCs promove uma importante interferência na formação dos granulomas hepáticos. Por outro lado, nossos estudos com salmonelas atenuadas recombinantes, carregando as DLCs, mostraram que foram ineficientes na apresentação dos antígenos ao sistema imune. Relacionando os resultados de diminuição de carga parasitária e das áreas dos granulomas depois da imunização com as DLCs purificadas sugere-se que essas proteínas podem ser consideradas como interessantes candidatos vacinais, uma vez que elas afetam as mais importantes causas da patologia da esquistossomose. / Schistosomiasis is one of the most important endemic diseases in the world, with more than 200 million people infected in 76 countries. It is estimated that more than 600 million people live in endemic areas. In 2003 extensive data from the transcriptome of Schsitosoma mansoni was made available. The information on the encoded proteins allowed the analysis of protein function and improved the search for vaccine candidates. The analysis of the transcriptome allowed the identification of three families of proteins homologs to the mammalian dynein light chain (DLC). One of these was the L8 family, with at least 18 members, all proteins with around 10 kDa. These proteins were found to be expressed in the different stages of the S. mansoni life cycle. Two DLCs were recognized in the tegument of S. japonicum, suggesting that they are exposed to the host immune system. Attenuated salmonellas, as live vaccines, have been described as good vehicles for presentation of heterologous antigens. At our laboratory an important tool has been developed to improve the use of salmonellas as live recombinant vaccines, a plasmidial vector based on the soxRS regulon to control the expression of heterologous genes in vivo. This expression system promotes the expression of recombinant proteins under conditions of oxidative stress, such as that imposed to the microorganism in the macrophage environment. To investigate the vaccine potential of DLCs, three genes were selected to be cloned and expressed in E. coli and in attenuated salmonellas. Antigenicity and immunogenicity of these paralogous were tested in mice after immunization with purified proteins or with the recombinant salmonellas. The DLCs were proven to be very immunogenic, increasing the IgG titers. DLC1 also increased the IgE levels in the sera of animals, what could be related to allergenic reactions observed in infected population. High level of IgE can also be related to the resistance mark of people living in endemic areas. After immunization, the animals were challenged with cercarias to investigate the protective profile. It was observed that immunization with purified proteins resulted in approximately 40% decreasing in the worm burden. The analysis of the hepatic granulomas 45 days after infection indicated a significant, up to 70 %, reduction of the granuloma areas, suggesting that immunization with DLCs promotes important interference in the hepatic granuloma formation. On the other hand, our studies with the attenuated recombinant salmonellas, carrying DLCs, showed no effective antigen presentation to the mice immune system. Taking together, the results of decreasing the worm burden and the granuloma size after immunization with purified DLCs suggest that these proteins could be considered as interesting vaccine candidates, affecting the main causes of the pathology of schistosomiasis.

En vue de contribuer à une meilleure compréhension des atteintes du système musculo-squelettique consécutives à une infection par un arthropod-borne-virus (arbovirus), deux arbovirus ont été étudiés : le virus du chikungunya (CHIKV) et le virus Zika (ZIKV), respectivement de la famille des Togaviridae et des Flaviviridae. Cette étude a été réalisée selon deux axes. Le premier s’intéresse aux atteintes articulaires consécutives à l’infection par le CHIKV. Nous avons mis au point un modèle d’imagerie in vivo reposant sur l’utilisation d’un virus recombinant exprimant la NanoLuciférase. Dans ce modèle, nous démontrons une persistance du signal bioluminescent dans les articulations 34 jours après infection. Par isolement des cartilages articulaires et des cellules constitutives, nous avons pu démontrer que les chondrocytes des cartilages métatarso-phalangiens sont infectés par le CHIKV de manière persistante, suggérant un rôle de réservoir de ces cellules. Les conséquences de l’infection au niveau cellulaire ont ensuite été étudiées in vitro. En utilisant des chondrocytes primaires humains, nous avons confirmé ces observations. De plus, les chondrocytes infectés produisent de nombreuses cytokines, induisant une stimulation du catabolisme du cartilage avec en particulier la synthèse de métalloprotéinases de matrice 3 et 9. De plus, l’infection par le CHIKV provoque la mort des cellules par apoptose, comme démontré par marquage TUNEL et par mesure de l’activité des caspases. Nous avons ensuite étudié les atteintes musculaires et le tropisme cellulaire du ZIKV. Dans un modèle murin, nous avons confirmé la présence de lésions musculaires, et l’utilisation de cellules musculaires primaires humaines a montré la sensibilité des myoblastes à l’infection, les myotubes étant résistants, suggérant un tropisme du ZIKV dépendant de la différenciation cellulaire. Trois souches virales ont été testées, sans relever de différences significatives en termes de cinétique d’infection, de nombre de cellules infectées et de production virale. L’infection des myoblastes entraîne la mort de ces cellules par un mécanisme caspase-indépendant. Des observations en microscopie électronique ont mis en évidence une vacuolisation du cytoplasme suite à l’infection, caractéristique d’une mort cellulaire par paraptose. Une analyse protéomique a démontré que l’infection des myoblastes par une souche asiatique conduit à une modification du protéome s’accentuant entre 24 heures et 48 heures post-infection, avec 225 protéines modulées 24 heures après infection contre 473 après 48 heures, indiquant une activation des voies de synthèse Interferon de type I et l’inhibition des capacités de synthèse des protéines. Ces résultats permettent une meilleure compréhension des atteintes du système-musculo-squelettique par les arbovirus / Musculoskeletal lesions caused by arthropod-borne-viruses (arboviruses) are invalidating for patients and remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the development of these manifestations after infection with two arboviruses: chikungunya virus (CHIKV) from the Togaviridae family, and Zika virus (ZIKV) from the Flaviviridae family. The first part of the study focused on arthritis following CHIKV infection. For this purpose, we developed a reporter virus expressing NanoLuciferase and performed experimental infections in a murine model. In vivo, a strong bioluminescent signal indicated viral replication and we observed persistence of the signal in the joints up to 34 days post-infection. By isolating primary murine cells from cartilage, we demonstrated the susceptibility of chondrocytes to CHIKV infection suggesting a role of reservoir of these cells. Furthermore, we investigated the consequences of the infection using in vitro models. We showed that primary human chondrocytes are also susceptible to CHIKV infection, which leads to the production of several cytokines involved in cartilage catabolism and induces apoptosis. In the second part of the study, we studied ZIKV muscular tropism and the associated lesions. Firstly, we confirmed the development of muscular lesions in a mouse model of ZIKA. Then, using human primary muscle cells we observed the infection of myoblasts but not myotubes, suggesting a differentiation-dependent tropism. We compared three viral strains and observed no significant difference in terms of replication, number of infected cells and viral production. Myoblasts infection induced a caspase-independent cells death mechanism and electronic microscope observations revealed intense vacuolization of cytoplasm, suggesting a paraptosis-like cell death. Proteomic analysis revealed that the Asian ZIKV strain modulated protein expression of infected cells with an increased effect after 48 hours. ZIKV-infection induced an important upregulation of biological processes associated with type I interferon and an inhibition of protein synthesis in the infected cells. These results provide valuable information about the mechanisms involved in the development of musculoskeletal lesions during arboviroses

Après une introduction brève de l’historique de l’imagerie dermatologique non invasive, ce travail est divisé 3 parties. 1) Présentation d’un projet de développement d’un tomographe à cohérence optique miniaturisé, peu onéreu devant permettre une diffusion de cette technique aux dermatologues exerçant en dehors des hôpitaux. Il s’agi d’un projet ANR DOCT-VCSEL Portable Optical Coherence Tomography with MEMS-VCSEL swept- sources for skin analysis ANR 2015 / Défi sociétal « Vie, Santé et Bien-Etre » Axe 13 « Technologies pour la santé » 2) Présentation d’un projet dont le but est l’identification de lésions cutanées cancéreuses au moyen d’un nouvel OCT haute définition développé par la société DAMAE, issue de l’Institut supérieur d’Optique de Palaiseau. Il s’agit d’un dispositif qui sera dans un premier temps réservé aux centre d’excellence en imagerie dermatologique. 3) la reprise des 52 publications ayant trait à l’imagerie cutanée auxquelles j’ai participé et référencées dans les bases de données internationales au 31 décembre 2016. Ce travail couvre l’ensemble de l’imagerie non invasive dermatologique moderne et aborde des sujets qui n’avaient jamais été étudié de la sorte. Notamment les muqueuses et l’appareil oculaire antérieur mais aussi l’identification par microscopie confocale des marge chirurgicales ou l’association microscopie confocale spectrométrie Raman / After a brief introduction to the history of non-invasive dermatological imaging, this work is divided into 3 parts. 1) Presentation of a project for the development of a low-cost miniaturized optical coherence tomograph to allow dissemination of this technique to dermatologists practicing outside hospitals. This is an ANR project: DOCT-VCSEL Portable Optical Coherence Tomography with MEMS-VCSEL swept-sources for skin analysis ANR 2015 / Societal Challenge "Life, Health and Welfare" Axis 13 “Technologies for Health" 2) Presentation of a project whose goal is the identification of cancer skin lesions by means of a new high definition OCT developed by the company DAMAE, resulting from the Higher Institute of Optics of Palaiseau. It is a device that will initially be reserved for centers of excellence in dermatological imaging. 3) Presentation of 52 publications related to skin imaging, in which I participated, and referenced in the international databases as of December 31, 2016. This work covers all modern dermatological non-invasive imaging and addresses Subjects that had never been studied in this way. Notably the mucous membranes and the anterior ocular apparatus but also the identification by confocal microscopy of the surgical margins or the association confocal microscopy Raman spectrometry

Un déséquilibre dans les mécanismes de défense de la cornée peut entraîner une invasion par des micro-organismes (MO) et générer une kératite infectieuse (KI), ou encore un syndrome sec. Les KI sont la première cause de cécité monoculaire. Le syndrome sec, également fréquent, est sujet à de nombreuses études cliniques pour l’évaluation de nouveaux traitements. L’objectif de cette thèse est de mettre au point des méthodes d’imagerie pour le diagnostic et le suivi des pathologies de la surface oculaire au travers de deux projets innovants : 1/ le projet FLUOCOR consistant à développer une solution complète de diagnostic rapide in vivo des MO les plus souvent responsables des KI afin de débuter immédiatement le traitement adapté et améliorer le pronostic visuel final. Cette solution comprendra des BioMarqueurs fluorescents (BMfs) spécifiques des agents infectieux, fluorescents dans le rouge ou le proche infrarouge non éblouissant et un nouvel instrument optique de détection. Des BMfs basés sur le couplage de BODIPY innovant avec des molécules ciblant les MO ont été obtenus. Des tests in vitro ont montré une bonne spécificité mais les tests ex vivo sur cornées humaines ont montré une fixation non spécifique sur les cellules épithéliales. Pour pallier ce manque de spécificité, le couplage de ces BODIPY sur des anticorps dirigés contre les MO est en cours. 2/ le projet FLUOSCOPE qui a permis de développer une nouvelle stratégie d’imagerie de la surface oculaire pour le suivi du syndrome sec, de la méthode d’instillation des colorants jusqu’au traitement d’images, en passant par la conception d’un instrument optique désormais industrialisé par les laboratoires Théa. / An imbalance in the defence system of cornea can result in several diseases, like infectious keratitis (IK) in case of invasion by microorganisms (MO) or dry eye in case of insufficient tear quality and/or quality. IK are the first cause of unilateral blindness worldwide. Sicca syndrome, also frequent, is the subject of numerous clinical trials assessing new treatments. The aim of the PhD Thesis work is to develop new imaging methods for the diagnosis and follow-up of diseases of the ocular surface. Two innovative project were conducted: 1/ the FLUOCOR project consists in developing a complete solution of rapid in vivo etiologic diagnosis of IK, for the most frequent and/or severe infections to allow rapid starting of the most adapted treatment in order to improve the final visual prognosis. This solution will comprise fluorescent biomarkers (excitable by sustainable non blinding red or near infrared lights) specific to the target MO, and a new optical imaging device for their detection. Biomarkers based on new BODIPY coupled with molecules targeting the MO were obtained with a good in vitro specificity. Nevertheless, on ex vivo human corneas they stained superficial epithelial cells. In order to overcome this difficulty, the coupling of BODIPY on specific antibodies targeting the MO is ongoing; 2/ the FLUOSCOPE project that allowed development of a new strategy of ocular surface imaging for the diagnosis and follow up of sicca syndrome. The complete chain was revisited from the instillation of the dye to the objective quantification of staining by image analysis, through the development of a prototype of imaging device, now industrialized by les Laboratoires Thea.

Le fonctionnement du cerveau repose sur la libération de molécules telles que les neurotransmetteurs et les métabolites dans le milieu interstitiel. L’étude de ces molécules est donc primordiale afin de mieux comprendre leur rôle physiologique et pathologique. Pour cela, les biocapteurs enzymatiques implantables sont un outil prometteur de par leurs capacités de détection quantitative, en temps réel et dans les tissus profonds. En fonction des dimensions du biocapteur, l’impact de l’implantation peut avoir des conséquences considérables sur la composition chimique du fluide interstitiel. De plus, chaque implantation induit localement une réaction inflammatoire dite « réaction au corps étranger ». La réduction de ces réactions est indispensable afin d’obtenir des estimations plus précises de la concentration des molécules présentes. Dans ce sens, ce manuscrit exposera deux voies de réduction de l’impact lésionnel dû à l’implantation de biocapteurs. Tout d’abord, il sera présenté la miniaturisation de biocapteurs enzymatiques jusqu’à des diamètres externes inférieurs à 15 µm. Et il sera démontré in vivo que ces biocapteurs ultra miniaturisés ont le potentiel d’être implantés dans le cerveau sans induire de dommages détectables aux tissus et aux vaisseaux sanguins. Ensuite, le développement d’une microsonde fabriquée à l’aide des technologies MEMS couplant une détection électrochimique et optique sera introduit dans le cadre du suivi du fluide interstitiel péri- et intratumoral de glioblastomes modifiés pour émettre de la fluorescence. En intégrant deux types de détection sur une unique micro-aiguille, cette microsonde permet de réduire le nombre d’implantations. Ces deux voies de miniaturisation ouvrent la possibilité de suivre la composition chimique du fluide interstitiel de manière moins invasive, et donc de mieux préserver la physiologie des tissus étudiés dans le cerveau. / Brain function is based on the release of molecules such as neurotransmitters and metabolites into the interstitial fluid. The study of these molecules is essential to better understand their physiological and pathological role. For this purpose, implantable enzymatic biosensors are a promising tool because of their quantitative, real-time and deep tissue detection abilities. Depending on the dimensions of the biosensor, the impact of implantation may have considerable consequences on the chemical composition of the interstitial fluid. In addition, each implantation induces a local inflammatory reaction called "foreign body reaction". The reduction of these reactions is crucial in order to provide more accurate estimations of molecules concentrations present in the interstitial fluid. In this sense, this manuscript will expose two ways of reducing the lesional impact due to the implantation of biosensors. First of all, it will be presented the miniaturization of enzymatic biosensors up to external diameters less than 15 µm. And it will be demonstrated in vivo that these ultra miniaturized biosensors have the potential to be implanted in the brain without inducing detectable damage to tissues and blood vessels. Then, the development of a microprobe fabricated using MEMS technologies combining electrochemical and optical detection will be introduced as part of the monitoring of peri- and intratumoral interstitial fluid from glioblastomes modified to fluoresce. By integrating two types of detection on a single micro-needle, this microprobe reduces the number of implantations. These two miniaturization approaches open up the possibility of following the chemical composition of the interstitial fluid in a less invasive way, and thus of better preserving the physiology of the tissues studied in the brain.

Les récepteurs NMDA (NMDARs) sont des canaux cationiques activés par le glutamate. Les NMDARs participent au développement cérébral, à la plasticité synaptique, à l'apprentissage, à la mémoire et aux fonctions cognitives supérieures. Des variants pathogènes de GRIN2A, codant pour la sous-unité GluN2A des NMDARs, peuvent causer des épilepsies focales et encéphalopathies épileptiques de l'enfance avec troubles du langage et de la parole, connue sous le nom de spectre des épilepsies-aphasies (EAS). Les caractéristiques communes de l'EAS comprennent une activité épileptiforme âge-dépendante activée pendant le sommeil lent associées à des troubles de la parole, de la cognition et du comportement qui peuvent persister à l'âge adulte. Afin de commencer à identifier les événements précoces possiblement associés aux altérations de GluN2A, nous avons exploré le modèle correspondant de souris knock-out (KO) du gène Grin2a. Nous avons notamment recherché des altérations précoces de la communication vocale, de la (micro)structure cérébrale, et de l'activité électrique néocorticale. Nos données démontrent l'existence de plusieurs altérations à ces différents niveaux, parfois transitoirement à des stades spécifiques. De plus, les enregistrements néocorticaux mettent en évidence des anomalies de divers types liées au sommeil lent. Nos résultats indiquent également un rôle de GluN2A dans la communication vocale, dans l'organisation de la microstructure cérébrale, et dans la maturation des activités d’ondes lentes. Ces données suggèrent que les souris KO Grin2a représentent un modèle fiable pour appréhender les mécanismes physiopathologiques associés à l’EAS et leur séquence temporelle. / NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are cation channels that are gated by glutamate - the major excitatory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system. NMDARs participate in brain development, synaptic plasticity, learning, memory and high cognitive functions. Pathogenic variants in the GRIN2A gene, which encodes the GluN2A subunit of the NMDARs, can cause a group of childhood focal epilepsies and epileptic encephalopathies with speech and language dysfunction, known as the epilepsy-aphasia spectrum (EAS). Features shared in common by EAS disorders include age-dependent epileptiform activity activated in sleep associated with speech, neuropsychological and behavioral deficits that may persist in adulthood. In order to start in deciphering the early events possibly associated with the dysfunctioning of GluN2A-containing NMDARs, we have explored the corresponding Grin2a knock-out (KO) mouse model. That consisted in looking for early alterations of vocal communication, of brain (micro)structure, and of neocortical electrical activity. Our data demonstrated the existence of several alterations at those various levels. Some alterations were transient only, being detected at selective stages; also, neocortical recordings pointed for sleep-related anomalies of various types. Our data also indicated a role for GluN2A-containing NMDA receptors in vocal communication, fine organization of brain microstructure, and proper maturation of slow wave activity in sleep. Altogether, our data suggest that the Grin2a KO mice represent a reliable model to further elucidate the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with the disorders of EAS and their temporal sequences.

Der Induzierbare Kostimulator (ICOS) ist ein wichtiger Regulator der T-Zell-Effektorfunktion. In vivo führt ein Defekt von ICOS zur Beeinträchtigung der T-Zellabhängigen humoralen Immunität. In gendefizienten Mäusen wurden stark gestörte B-Zellantworten beobachtet. Mehrere in vitro und in vivo Studien führen diese Phänomene auf eine beeinträchtigte Regulation von Kommunikationsmolekülen auf der Zelloberfläche und Expression von Zytokinen durch ICOS-defiziente T-Zellen zurück. In dieser Arbeit konnte jedoch anhand Antigen-spezifischer T-Zellen in einem murinen adoptiven Transfersystem gezeigt werden, dass das Signal über ICOS die frühe T-Zellaktivierung nicht signifikant beeinflusst. Stattdessen trägt ICOS wesentlich zum Überleben und zur Expansion von Effektor T-Zellen bei, die zuvor lokal durch Antigengabe mit Adjuvanz induziert wurden. Diese beobachtete biologische Funktion von ICOS lässt sich auch auf FoxP3+ Regulatorische T-Zellen übertragen, welche durch systemische Antigengabe ohne Adjuvanz generiert wurden. In Übereinstimmung mit diesem Befund führt die Abwesenheit von ICOS unter homöostatischen Bedingungen in nicht-immunisierten Mäusen zu reduzierten Zellzahlen von Effektor-Memory T-Zellen und FoxP3+ Regulatorischen T-Zellen. Der regulierende Effekt von ICOS auf die Größe einer spezifischen Effektor T-Zellpopulation gilt auch für Follikuläre T-Helferzellen, konnte jedoch für zytotoxische CD8+ T-Zellen nicht eindeutig nachgewiesen werden. Auf der Grundlage dieser Ergebnisse kristallisiert sich eine globale biologische Rolle von ICOS für Effektorzellen heraus. Als kostimulatorisches, agonistisches Molekül reguliert ICOS generell die Pool-Größe aller Effektor T-Zellen mit unterschiedlichen, teilweise gegensätzlichen funktionellen Eigenschaften. Mit Hilfe dieses neuen Konzeptes können frühere in vivo Studien, deren Ergebnisse in Bezug auf die Funktion von ICOS scheinbar widersprüchlich waren, in Einklang gebracht werden. / The Inducible Co-Stimulator (ICOS) is an important regulator of T cell effector function. In vivo ICOS deficiency results in impaired T-cell dependent humoral immunity. Knock out mice show strongly defective B cell responses. Several in vitro and in vivo studies attributed this phenomenon to impaired upregulation of cell surface communication molecules and cytokine synthesis by ICOS-deficient T cells. However, in this work now could be shown with antigen-specific T cells in a murine adoptive transfer system that signaling via ICOS does not significantly affect early T cell activation. Instead, ICOS substantially contributes to the survival and expansion of effector T cells upon local challenge with antigen and adjuvant. Importantly, the observed biological function of ICOS also extends to FoxP3+ regulatory T cells, as can be observed after systemic antigen delivery without adjuvant. In line with these findings, absence of ICOS under homeostatic conditions of nonimmunized mice leads to a reduced number of both effector-memory and FoxP3+ regulatory T cells. The regulatory function of ICOS to control the poolsize of special T cell effector populations is also observed for follicular B helper T cells. The influence of ICOS on cytotoxic CD8+ T cells could not be clearly demonstrated. Based on these results, I propose a biological role for ICOS as a costimulatory, agonistic molecule for a variety of effector T cells with differing and partly opposing funtional roles. This concept may reconcile a number of past in vivo studies with seemingly cotradictory results on ICOS function.