Abstract Three different studies were conducted to elucidate the effects of copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) on Scots pine needles. One was the Monchegorsk smelter emission gradient study on the Kola Peninsula, Russia, the second was the 3-year seedling and 6-year adult tree low-level CuNi and acid rain (H2SO4 at pH 3) irrigation study at Kevo, Finland. In the third study seedlings were exposed to Cu and Ni for a one season in Oulu, Finland. Ni accumulated efficiently in needles, and this accumulation was seen in each of the different studies. The Cu concentrations remained low in needles, except near the Monchegorsk smelters. The addition of Ni together with Cu in Oulu seemed to enhance the accumulation of Ni into the needles of Scots pine seedlings. Plasmolysis may be related to both drought and the Ni treatment, as observed in Oulu, because plasmolysis was statistically more abundant in the 15 mg Ni kg-1 dry soil treated needles than in other treatments except in 25 mg Ni kg-1 dry soil. Cu induced lipid peroxidation of chloroplast membranes was visible under transmission electron microscope (TEM) as light colored, swollen thylakoids in chloroplasts near the Monchegorsk smeltersand also in needles exposed to 25 Ni+50 Cu mg kg-1 in soil in Oulu. Some year to year variation in the frost hardening process was seen in metal and acid treated needles, which may have caused the maximum frost hardiness level drop after CuNi, pH3 and CuNi/pH3 treatments. Root growth was increased by 5 mg Ni kg-1 dry soil in soil in Oulu, but 15 mg Ni kg-1 dry soil Ni in soil decreased root growth and increased root tip dieback. 25 Ni+50 Cu mg kg-1 dry soil in soil markedly decreased root growth. The proportion of oxidized glutathione in Cu-treated needles was smaller than in Ni-treated needles, but roots had higher peroxidase activity levels. However, Ni seemed to cause more oxidative stress to seedlings than copper.

Magister Legum - LLM / A geographical indication (GI) is a sign by which a product is identified as having its origin in a particular territory and as having certain qualities, characteristics and a reputation, which are associated with that origin. There is currently no uniform international mechanism of protecting GIs, however, the framework for the protection of GIs is provided by Articles 22 to 24 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Article 23.1 provides a distinct advantage for the protection of wines and spirits as compared to the general protection of Article 22 for all other products. This thesis argues that a uniform system of protection for GIs should be established internationally, and that protection would be to the advantage of developing countries. The purpose of this study is to determine the best available method (i.e. trademark legislation or sui generis legislation) for protecting GIs for agricultural products of developing countries, through analysing the international legal framework governing the protection of GIs and the methods of national protection available as applied in Ethiopia, South Africa and India. The central argument advanced is that the use of trademarks should be a stepping stone, sui generis legislation is the ideal. Sui generis (separate) legislation should be drafted to fulfil the obligations of TRIPS and to ensure the extended protection, through national legislation, of all goods within other Member States. It is highly unlikely that the TRIPS Member States will agree to the extended protection of the Article 23. Therefore, the most suitable method to achieve such protection would be for Member States to extend their national protection through sui generis legislation.

The aim of this thesis is to describe spas in Czech Republic, from its history, spa areas, and its natural medicinal resources to economy of spas, sources of financing, providing services and legislation. The practical part is focused on the changes in funding spa care on the ground of amendment the List of indications which sets the rules for complex spa care and contributory spa care that is fully or partly covered by public health insurance. The main aim of this work is to define primarily economic impacts of the spa, which this amendment really brings after a several months.

The European Union is proposing that the additional protection for geographical indications afforded to wine and spirits in section 23.1 of the TRIPS agreement be extended to include geographical indications of other agricultural products. Those opposing increased protection for geographical indications represent those countries which do not have a strong history of traditional food products and are generally considered new world countries. South Africa, as part of the new world, has as of yet failed to take a position on the matter. In light of this debate, this study sets out to investigate the relevance of geographical indications in a South African context in order to make recommendations for South Africa’s position in the debate at multi-lateral level. The topic is approached by first contextualizing the subject matter where after the economic rationale for the protection thereof is explored. A comprehensive literature study identifies the factors which contribute to a product’s potential to benefit from geographical indication protection. Based on these factors, three South African products, Rooibos, Klein Karoo ostrich and Honeybush, are analyzed and an ex ante judgment made as to their potential to benefit from geographical indication protection. It is hypothesized that geographical indications are indeed relevant in a South African context given that there are many South African products which are considered to be highly localized with a strong association between the region and the product. The Rooibos scenario is used to illustrate the need for timely protection of our national assets and sets the tone for the discussion of the two further case studies. It is found that despite widespread reputation, Klein Karoo ostrich may not ideally benefit from geographical indication protection given its lack of specificity. In contrast, it is found that Honeybush tea is a highly localised product with strong specificity and therefore stands to benefit from geographical indication protection. The study concludes that there are indeed South African products which could potentially benefit from geographical indication protection. Based on this, recommendations are made for South Africa’s position in the debate at multi-lateral level. It is recommended that the South African government take note of the potential of geographical indications to foster rural development and the need to protect our national assets from foreign appropriation. It is further recommended that this be done by firstly coming out in support of the European proposal for a mandatory system of registration for all products bearing a geographical indication and secondly, by providing for the development of an institutional framework within which to protect geographical indications domestically. / Dissertation (M.COM (Economic Sciences))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

No atual contexto econômico da empresa agrária, em que os produtos da atividade econômica, sejam eles animais ou vegetais, são tratados como verdadeiras commodities, ou seja, bens absolutamente fungíveis, cujo valor de comercialização é determinado em bolsas de mercadorias & futuro, as indicações geográficas ganham cada vez mais importância econômica quanto ao empresário rural, por tratar-se de uma importante ferramenta de diferenciação no mercado, permitindo que se agregue valor aos produtos agrícolas. A presente dissertação visa o estudo dos principais aspectos relativos às indicações geográficas, como a sua natureza jurídica, titularidade, extensão da proteção, procedimento de registro, comparando-as a institutos análogos, especialmente as marcas coletivas e de certificação, como maneira de permitir uma melhor compreensão do instituto e de ressaltar a possibilidade do seu uso como instrumento de desenvolvimento agrário no Brasil. Para tanto, pretende-se fazer um estudo sobre a evolução história do instituto, especialmente sobre a crescente proteção das indicações geográficas, através dos acordos internacionais, iniciados com a Convenção da União de Paris CUP, passando pelos Acordos de Madrid, Lisboa e acordo TRIPS (sigla em inglês da expressão Aspectos dos Direitos da Propriedade Intelectual relacionados ao Comércio). Estuda-se, com este trabalho, a evolução da proteção às indicações geográficas no país, culminando com a proteção prevista na Lei nº 9.279/96 (Lei da Propriedade Industrial), e os procedimentos para o registro destas perante o Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial INPI. Visa-se, ainda, tecer algumas críticas que se fazem necessárias à falta de uma melhor normatização das indicações geográficas na Lei da Propriedade Industrial. Por fim, o trabalho tem como objetivo contribuir para a consolidação da proteção e divulgação da importância das indicações geográficas no atual contexto brasileiro, permitindo e incentivando seu desenvolvimento pelos produtores brasileiros. / The products of the present day agricultural enterprise, be they animal or crops are traded on the world markets like any other commodity, that is to say, they are fungible goods whose value is determined solely on the world commodity exchanges and futures markets. In this context, the geographical indications take on an increasing significance to the agrarian businessman in that they allow those agricultural products to be distinguished from the standard commodities and thus enable them to command a premium price. This dissertation aims the study the main aspects of the geographical indications, such as their legal nature, where ownership lies, the extent of their legal protection, registration procedures, and to compare them with similar concepts, such as: collective trademarks and certification marks. The objective being to understand the importance of the principle better and demonstrate its possible use as a means of further agricultural development in Brazil. The intention is to study the historical evolution of the concept of geographical indications, particularly regarding the growing protection of geographical indications through international treaties such as the Paris Convention, the Madrid and Lisbon agreements and the TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) accord. The evolution of Brazilian legislation protecting geographical indications will be considered, this legislation culminating with the protection embodied in Law No. 9279/96 (Industrial Property Law) and the procedures for registration of geographical indications with the National Institute for Industrial Property Rights. It is also my intention to analyse critically the lack of more precise rules governing geographical indications within the Industrial Property Law. Finally, this paper tries to contribute to the understanding of the importance of geographical indications to Brazil at present and to consolidate a means of protecting their integrity, in this way allowing and encouraging the development of new geographical indications for Brazilian producers.

La question de la biodiversité urbaine a pris une place importante au sein des politiques publiques à toutes les échelles, y compris celle de la ville. Initialement conçue comme une adhésion générique à une éthique de la conservation de la biodiversité et aux grands objectifs internationaux de la part des villes, la biodiversité est désormais sujette à un processus de technicisation, de traduction en objectifs mesurables. Cette thèse se situe à ce carrefour, entre la notion abstraite de biodiversité urbaine et sa traduction en éléments tangibles. En partant du simple postulat que mesurer ne veut pas uniquement dire quantifier, nous nous sommes interrogés sur ce que peut être une mesure de la biodiversité urbaine. A travers cette problématique, nous avons questionné autant la mesure officielle, le City Biodiversity index, produit par une équipe d’experts singapouriens (ce que la mesure est) ; que l’existence d’autres manières de produire une mesure n’ayant pas la quantification comme convention préalable (ce que la mesure pourrait être). Cette approche a donné lieu à deux terrains distincts : le premier au sein de l’équipe singapourienne dirigeant le processus de création de l’indice, et le second, au sein d’une association d’apiculteurs urbains agissant en faveur de la biodiversité urbaine, localisée à Fontenay-sous-Bois. Par une comparaison expérimentale des deux processus de mise en mesure, nous avons pu, d’une part, enquêter sur la façon de traduire une notion en mesure, et d’autre part, interroger les contenus mêmes de la notion. Ainsi, nous avons cherché à démontrer que la mesure existante de la biodiversité urbaine se caractérise en tant qu’espace d’exercice du pouvoir de la part de la ville-État de Singapour, un espace de compétition par instruments (et des villes globales qui les portent), afin de devenir la référence internationale en matière de biodiversité urbaine. L’expérience quotidienne des apiculteurs urbains, quant à elle, nous a permis de montrer qu’il existe d’autres façons d’articuler concrètement la notion de biodiversité urbaine et de se donner une mesure pour agir et (s’) évaluer. Il s’agit dans ce cas d’une mesure qualitative faite d’indications, plutôt que d’indicateurs, des indications en évolution, mais qui concrétisent une notion floue comme celle de la biodiversité urbaine. Enfin, à travers la comparaison, nous avons pu observer et analyser l’émergence d’espaces d’intelligibilité partagés entre les deux perspectives, et ainsi sont devenues visibles des configurations possibles de la notion de biodiversité urbaine. / The issue of urban biodiversity has become an important part of public policy at all levels. Originally conceived as a generic endorsement of a biodiversity conservation ethics, aimed at joining up with the major international objectives of urban sustainability, urban biodiversity is today undergoing a process of technicization, meant to translate a set of concepts into measurable objectives. It is precisely on this conceptual crossroads that the present analysis focuses, namely, between the abstract notion of urban biodiversity and its translation into tangible features. Starting from the assumption that ‘quantification’ is first of all an agreement on what one wants to measure of a concept, this research explores what an urban biodiversity measure might be. In other words, we question both the internationally recognized measure developed by a team of Singaporean experts, the so-called City Biodiversity Index (what the measure is), and the existence of other ways of producing a measurement without the help of a quantitative convention (what the measure might be). From such theoretical framework two distinct types of field works derived: the first, with the Singaporean team leading the index’s creation process; the second, with an association of urban beekeepers in Fontenay-sous-Bois, working to preserve urban biodiversity. By an experimental comparison of the two measurement processes, we were able, on the one hand, to figure out how a notion is translated into a measure and, on the other, to challenge the very contents of the notion. We sought to demonstrate that the current urban biodiversity measure is a space of “competition by instruments”, namely, a space of power exercised by Singapore’s city-state with the aim of becoming the urban biodiversity international model. The daily experience of the urban beekeepers, instead, showed that there are alternative ways to concretely translate the notion of urban biodiversity, i.e., through indications rather than indicators, and create in this way a concreate measure of the concept. Finally, by comparing the two contexts, we have been able to observe and analyze the emergence of ‘shared spaces of intelligibility’ and thus of others potential configurations of the notion of urban biodiversity.

Cette thèse porte sur les processus de qualification territoriale des produits agroalimentaires, en analysant le rôle que jouent les indications géographiques (IG) dans ces processus, en Indonésie et au Vietnam. Nous interrogeons les objectifs et les conditions économiques du développement des IG, en articulant économie de la qualité et des territoires. Trois pôles de conditions économiques sont mis à l’épreuve, par l’analyse (1) de la spécificité des produits, (2) des coordinations territoriales et de l’organisation locale des acteurs, et (3) du rôle de l’État. La mise en regard des systèmes d’IG indonésien et vietnamien, confrontée au modèle économique des IG, souligne le rôle important joué par les États, qui dépasse la seule dimension juridique de protection des IG pour englober un ensemble de fonctions (sélection des produits, financement des IG, expertise, suivi post-enregistrement). La lecture croisée de six expériences locales d’IG démontre, d’une part, que l’enregistrement des IG peut être effectué à différents stades du processus de qualification territoriale en cours (avancé, intermédiaire ou récent) et que le moment d’apparition de l’IG conditionne la construction du dispositif institutionnel local. D'autre part, notre enquête de terrain souligne l’importance du contexte économique des filières et l’influence des configurations sociopolitiques locales dans la phase d’émergence des IG, questionnant ainsi la capacité des ces dispositifs institutionnels locaux à équilibrer les rapports de pouvoir entre acteurs. L’analyse des rôles multiples des États centraux et locaux dans les dynamiques émergentes d’IG ouvre des pistes de réflexion quant aux liens entre IG, action publique, décentralisation et marges de manœuvre pour l’organisation et l’action collective locale. La poursuite de processus d'institutionnalisation du lien à l'origine à travers les IG dans ces deux pays apparaît conditionnée par plusieurs éléments, notamment une participation élargie des producteurs aux dynamiques locales d’IG, le rôle actif des services agricoles provinciaux et l’adhésion plus étendue des acheteurs. / This thesis analyses the process of territorial qualification of agro-food products, by studying the role of geographical indications (GI) in this process, in Indonesia and Vietnam. We interrogate the objectives and the economic conditions of the development of GIs, by combining the economics of quality and territories. Three types of conditions are questioned, through the analysis of (1) the specificity of products, (2) the territorial coordinations and the organization of local actors, and (3) the State’s role. The comparison of the Indonesian and Vietnamese GI systems, confronted with the economic model of GIs, highlights the important role of the States, which goes beyond the legal protection of GIs and gather several functions (selection of products, funding, expertise, monitoring after registration). The parallel analysis of six local GI experiences demonstrates, first, that GIs are be registered at various stages of the ongoing process of territorial qualification (advanced, intermediate or recent) and that the moment of the GI establishment conditions the construction of the local institutional device. Secondly, our field research underlines the importance of the economic context of supply-chains and the influence of local sociopolitical configurations during the emergence of GIs, questioning the capacity of these local institutional devices to balance the power between stakeholders. The study of the various roles of central States and local governments in the emerging GI dynamics opens perspectives of analysis of the interactions between GIs, public intervention, decentralization and opportunities for local organization and collective action. The evolution of the institutionalization process of the link to origin through GIs in both countries appears contingent upon several elements, including a larger participation of producers to the local GI dynamics, an active role of the local agricultural services and a broad engagement of buyers.

No atual contexto econômico da empresa agrária, em que os produtos da atividade econômica, sejam eles animais ou vegetais, são tratados como verdadeiras commodities, ou seja, bens absolutamente fungíveis, cujo valor de comercialização é determinado em bolsas de mercadorias & futuro, as indicações geográficas ganham cada vez mais importância econômica quanto ao empresário rural, por tratar-se de uma importante ferramenta de diferenciação no mercado, permitindo que se agregue valor aos produtos agrícolas. A presente dissertação visa o estudo dos principais aspectos relativos às indicações geográficas, como a sua natureza jurídica, titularidade, extensão da proteção, procedimento de registro, comparando-as a institutos análogos, especialmente as marcas coletivas e de certificação, como maneira de permitir uma melhor compreensão do instituto e de ressaltar a possibilidade do seu uso como instrumento de desenvolvimento agrário no Brasil. Para tanto, pretende-se fazer um estudo sobre a evolução história do instituto, especialmente sobre a crescente proteção das indicações geográficas, através dos acordos internacionais, iniciados com a Convenção da União de Paris CUP, passando pelos Acordos de Madrid, Lisboa e acordo TRIPS (sigla em inglês da expressão Aspectos dos Direitos da Propriedade Intelectual relacionados ao Comércio). Estuda-se, com este trabalho, a evolução da proteção às indicações geográficas no país, culminando com a proteção prevista na Lei nº 9.279/96 (Lei da Propriedade Industrial), e os procedimentos para o registro destas perante o Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial INPI. Visa-se, ainda, tecer algumas críticas que se fazem necessárias à falta de uma melhor normatização das indicações geográficas na Lei da Propriedade Industrial. Por fim, o trabalho tem como objetivo contribuir para a consolidação da proteção e divulgação da importância das indicações geográficas no atual contexto brasileiro, permitindo e incentivando seu desenvolvimento pelos produtores brasileiros. / The products of the present day agricultural enterprise, be they animal or crops are traded on the world markets like any other commodity, that is to say, they are fungible goods whose value is determined solely on the world commodity exchanges and futures markets. In this context, the geographical indications take on an increasing significance to the agrarian businessman in that they allow those agricultural products to be distinguished from the standard commodities and thus enable them to command a premium price. This dissertation aims the study the main aspects of the geographical indications, such as their legal nature, where ownership lies, the extent of their legal protection, registration procedures, and to compare them with similar concepts, such as: collective trademarks and certification marks. The objective being to understand the importance of the principle better and demonstrate its possible use as a means of further agricultural development in Brazil. The intention is to study the historical evolution of the concept of geographical indications, particularly regarding the growing protection of geographical indications through international treaties such as the Paris Convention, the Madrid and Lisbon agreements and the TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) accord. The evolution of Brazilian legislation protecting geographical indications will be considered, this legislation culminating with the protection embodied in Law No. 9279/96 (Industrial Property Law) and the procedures for registration of geographical indications with the National Institute for Industrial Property Rights. It is also my intention to analyse critically the lack of more precise rules governing geographical indications within the Industrial Property Law. Finally, this paper tries to contribute to the understanding of the importance of geographical indications to Brazil at present and to consolidate a means of protecting their integrity, in this way allowing and encouraging the development of new geographical indications for Brazilian producers.

Cette thèse évalue l'impact économique des politiques de qualité liée à l'origine en mobilisant des méthodes d'évaluation que nous adaptons à la spécificité des démarches de certification, notamment à leur dimension spatiale. Dans un premier temps, nous analysons l'effet de l'adoption d’une Appellation d’Origine Protégée (AOP) sur le prix ainsi que sur les coûts de production des producteurs de lait AOP en Franche-Comté, en exploitant la discontinuité géographique à la frontière (Geographic Regression Discontinuity). Dans un second temps, nous utilisons les méthodes d'appariement statistique pour analyser les hétérogénéités régionales en termes de prix et de coûts de production entre les régions Auvergne, Rhône-Alpes et Franche-Comté avant de nous intéresser aux effets à une échelle nationale. Enfin, nous évaluons l'effet de l'adoption d'une Indication Géographique Protégée (IGP) sur les prix payés aux producteurs de Café de Colombie à l'aide des méthodes comparatives (synthetic control methods). En moyenne, les résultats montrent un effet positif de l'adoption de l'indication géographique sur la performance économique des exploitations. Cependant, cet effet est hétérogène entre les filières et les régions d'origine des produits. / This thesis evaluates the economic impact of quality-related-to-origin policies using evaluation methods adapted to the specificity of such certifications, in particular, the spatial dimension. First, we analyze the effect of a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) adoption on price and production costs of PDO milk producers in Franche-Comté using a Geographic Regression Discontinuity (GRD) design. Secondly, we use propensity matching methods to analyze regional heterogeneity in Auvergne, Rhône-Alpes, and Franche-Comté before focusing on the effect of the PDO adoption at a national level. Finally, we evaluate the effect of the adoption of a Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) on prices paid to Colombian coffee producers using synthetic control methods. Overall, we find that PDO and/or PGI adoption is associated with positive effects on farmers' economic performances. However, these effects are not homogeneously distributed.

Thesis (MScPhysio (Physiotherapy))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / Study Aim: To describe the profile and selected outcomes of CABG patients admitted in the Cape metropolitan area. Design: A prospective descriptive study design with a multicentre observational approach was followed. Method: All patients undergoing isolated CABG surgery, whether elective or emergency, during a three-month period (15 August–15 November 2005) were included in the study. Demographic data, pre-operative medical status, intra-operative, as well as post-operative information were collected using a self-designed structured initial assessment form (SIA). Means and standard deviations were calculated where applicable. Relationships between different variables were analyzed by means of: ANOVA, correlations, linear and logistic regressions. Where it appeared that the ANOVA assumptions were violated, non-parametric bootstrap techniques were employed. Results: Two hundred and forty five patients were admitted to the seven hospitals which provide CABG surgery in the Cape metropolitan area in the allotted period. The profile of patients admitted to private and state institutions were similar. The mean age of the sample was 60 (±10). The mean LOS of the total cohort was 12 (±5.5) days, with patients in the state hospitals staying longer 13.4 days (± 7.1). Patients who were older than 60 were twice as likely to have a LOS >12days (odds ratio = 2.49; 95% confidence interval = 1.33 to 4.65). The development of a pleural effusion or pneumothorax was associated with an increased LOS (p<0.01). At least one PPC was reported in 65% of the population. A mortality rate of only 3% was reported. Conclusion: Patients in this cohort were younger than in developed countries. An age greater than 60 years was a predictor of an LOS >12days in the current cohort. Patients were most likely to develop a PPC on day three after CABG surgery. Physiotherapeutic intervention, if any, would be well aimed at those patients older than 60 years of age. Screening of patients in the first three post-operative days for the development of PPCs is also advised.